382 Social Studies words · English + Español
the movement to end slavery; an abolitionist is a person who worked for that goal.
Example: Frederick Douglass, who escaped slavery in 1838, became one of the best-known abolitionist speakers and writers.
abolición / abolicionista — el movimiento para acabar con la esclavitud; un abolicionista es una persona que luchó por esa meta.
being able to produce more of a good than someone else with the same amount of resources.
Example: If one worker sews 10 shirts an hour and another sews 6, the first worker has an absolute advantage in shirts.
ventaja absoluta — poder producir más de un bien que otro con la misma cantidad de recursos.
a government in which a king or queen holds all power, with no constitution or lawmakers to limit it.
Example: King Louis XIV of France (ruled 1643–1715) decided laws, taxes and wars on his own.
monarquía absoluta — un gobierno en el que un rey o una reina tiene todo el poder, sin una constitución ni legisladores que lo limiten.
Learn it: Types of modern and historical governmentsFull page
the terrorist network led by Osama bin Laden that carried out the September 11, 2001, attacks on the United States.
Example: On 9/11, al Qaeda hijackers crashed planes into the World Trade Center and the Pentagon, killing nearly 3,000 people.
al Qaeda — la red terrorista dirigida por Osama bin Laden que llevó a cabo los ataques del 11 de septiembre de 2001 contra Estados Unidos.
an agreement between nations to help defend one another if one of them is attacked.
Example: Before World War I, Britain, France and Russia formed an alliance called the Triple Entente.
alianza — un acuerdo entre naciones para ayudarse a defenderse si una de ellas es atacada.
a formal change or addition to the Constitution; there have been 27 so far.
Example: The Nineteenth Amendment (1920) gave women the right to vote.
enmienda — un cambio o una adición formal a la Constitución; hasta ahora ha habido 27.
adding a territory to a country and making it part of that country.
Example: The United States annexed Texas in 1845, and Texas became the 28th state.
anexión — agregar un territorio a un país y hacerlo parte de ese país.
Learn it: European settlement and population of the AmericasFull page
giving in to an aggressive country's demands in the hope of avoiding war.
Example: In the 1938 Munich Agreement, Britain and France let Hitler take part of Czechoslovakia.
apaciguamiento — ceder ante las exigencias de un país agresivo con la esperanza de evitar una guerra.
a law that sets aside government money for a specific purpose.
Example: Each year Congress passes appropriations that pay for the military, national parks and other programs.
asignación de fondos — una ley que aparta dinero del gobierno para un fin específico.
the yearly cost of borrowing money, including interest and some fees, shown as a percent.
Example: A credit card with a 24% APR costs about $240 a year on a $1,000 balance that is never paid down.
APR (tasa de porcentaje anual) — el costo anual de pedir dinero prestado, incluidos el interés y algunos cargos, expresado como porcentaje.
an agreement between enemies to stop fighting while they work out a peace treaty.
Example: Fighting in World War I ended with the armistice of November 11, 1918, the day now honored as Veterans Day.
armisticio — un acuerdo entre enemigos para dejar de pelear mientras negocian un tratado de paz.
a competition between countries to build more and better weapons, especially nuclear weapons.
Example: During the Cold War, the United States and the Soviet Union built tens of thousands of nuclear warheads.
carrera armamentista — una competencia entre países por fabricar más y mejores armas, sobre todo armas nucleares.
the first U.S. plan of government (1781–1789), which created a weak national Congress and left most power with the states.
Example: Under the Articles, Congress could not tax or raise an army, so it could do little about Shays' Rebellion in 1786.
Artículos de la Confederación — el primer plan de gobierno de EE. UU. (1781–1789), que creó un Congreso nacional débil y dejó la mayor parte del poder a los estados.
a system in which the product moves past a line of workers, and each worker does one task.
Example: Henry Ford's moving assembly line (1913) cut the time to build a Model T from about 12 hours to about 90 minutes.
línea de ensamblaje — un sistema en el que el producto pasa frente a una fila de trabajadores, y cada uno hace una sola tarea.
describes a government that demands obedience, allows no real opposition and does not answer to the people.
Example: In an authoritarian state, critics of the leader may be jailed, and elections, if held at all, are not free.
autoritario — describe un gobierno que exige obediencia, no permite una oposición real y no le rinde cuentas al pueblo.
Learn it: Types of modern and historical governmentsFull page
the joint resolution Congress passed in September 2001 that let the President use force against those responsible for 9/11.
Example: Presidents used the 2001 AUMF as the legal basis for the war in Afghanistan.
Autorización para el Uso de la Fuerza Militar (AUMF) — la resolución conjunta que aprobó el Congreso en septiembre de 2001 y que permitió al presidente usar la fuerza contra los responsables del 11 de septiembre.
using machines or computers to do work that people once did.
Example: Self-checkout machines in grocery stores are a form of automation.
automatización — usar máquinas o computadoras para hacer trabajos que antes hacían personas.
the two sides of World War II: the Axis, led by Germany, Italy and Japan, and the Allies, led by Britain, the Soviet Union and the U.S.
Example: Germany, Italy and Japan formally joined together as the Axis by signing the Tripartite Pact in 1940.
Eje / Aliados — los dos bandos de la Segunda Guerra Mundial: el Eje, encabezado por Alemania, Italia y Japón, y los Aliados, encabezados por Gran Bretaña, la Unión Soviética y EE. UU.
the value of a country's exports minus its imports: a trade surplus if exports are larger, a trade deficit if imports are larger.
Example: The United States has imported more than it exports, a trade deficit, every year since 1976.
balanza comercial (superávit / déficit comercial) — el valor de las exportaciones de un país menos sus importaciones: hay superávit comercial si las exportaciones son mayores y déficit si las importaciones son mayores.
Learn it: Economic drivers of exploration and colonialismFull page
many depositors rushing to take out their money at once because they fear the bank will fail.
Example: Bank runs helped close thousands of U.S. banks in the early 1930s, before deposit insurance existed.
pánico bancario — muchos depositantes que corren a sacar su dinero al mismo tiempo porque temen que el banco quiebre.
anything that makes it hard for new businesses to enter a market and compete.
Example: The billions of dollars needed to build an airplane factory keep most new companies out of that industry.
barrera de entrada — cualquier cosa que les hace difícil a las empresas nuevas entrar a un mercado y competir.
labels for years: BCE ("Before the Common Era") years count down toward year 1, and CE ("Common Era") years count up from it.
Example: Julius Caesar was killed in 44 BCE, and the Roman Empire began 17 years later, in 27 BCE.
a. C. / d. C. (en inglés: BCE / CE) — etiquetas para los años: los años a. C. (antes de Cristo) se cuentan hacia atrás hasta el año 1, y los años d. C. (después de Cristo) se cuentan hacia adelante.
having two separate chambers, or houses, in the lawmaking body.
Example: Congress is bicameral: it has the Senate and the House of Representatives.
bicameral — que tiene dos cámaras separadas en el órgano que hace las leyes.
Learn it: Structure and design of the U.S. governmentFull page
the first ten amendments to the Constitution, added in 1791 to protect the basic rights of individuals.
Example: Freedom of speech, religion and the press is protected by the First Amendment, part of the Bill of Rights.
Carta de Derechos — las primeras diez enmiendas a la Constitución, agregadas en 1791 para proteger los derechos básicos de las personas.
Learn it: Individual rights and civic responsibilitiesFull page
the number of births, or of deaths, for every 1,000 people in a year.
Example: A town of 10,000 people with 120 births in a year has a birth rate of 12 per 1,000.
tasa de natalidad / tasa de mortalidad — el número de nacimientos, o de muertes, por cada 1,000 personas en un año.
laws passed by Southern states in 1865–66 that limited the rights and freedom of formerly enslaved people.
Example: Mississippi's 1865 Black Code let police arrest Black people who could not prove they had a job.
Códigos Negros (Black Codes) — leyes que aprobaron los estados del Sur en 1865–66 para limitar los derechos y la libertad de las personas que habían sido esclavizadas.
using ships or troops to stop goods and people from entering or leaving an enemy's ports.
Example: In the Civil War, the Union Navy blockaded Southern ports so the Confederacy could not sell its cotton abroad.
bloqueo — usar barcos o tropas para impedir que entren o salgan bienes y personas de los puertos de un enemigo.
a line that separates countries, states or other regions.
Example: The border between the United States and Canada is about 5,500 miles long, the longest in the world.
frontera (límite) — una línea que separa países, estados u otras regiones.
the slave states that stayed in the Union during the Civil War: Delaware, Kentucky, Maryland and Missouri.
Example: Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation did not free enslaved people in the border states, to keep those states loyal.
estados fronterizos — los estados esclavistas que se quedaron en la Unión durante la Guerra Civil: Delaware, Kentucky, Maryland y Misuri.
refusing to buy, use or take part in something as a form of protest.
Example: After the Stamp Act of 1765, colonists boycotted British goods, and Parliament repealed the tax in 1766.
boicot — negarse a comprar, usar o participar en algo como forma de protesta.
the level of sales at which total revenue equals total cost, so profit is zero.
Example: A lemonade stand that spends $20 on supplies and sells cups for $1 breaks even after selling 20 cups.
punto de equilibrio — el nivel de ventas en el que el ingreso total es igual al costo total, así que la ganancia es cero.
a plan for how to spend and save income over a period of time, usually a month.
Example: A worker who earns $2,400 a month might budget $1,000 for rent, $400 for food and $200 for savings.
presupuesto — un plan de cómo gastar y ahorrar los ingresos durante un período, por lo general un mes.
a deficit is spending more than you take in during a year; a surplus is taking in more than you spend.
Example: The federal government last had a budget surplus in 2001 and has run a deficit every year since.
déficit / superávit presupuestario — un déficit es gastar más de lo que entra en un año; un superávit es recibir más de lo que se gasta.
gold or silver in the form of bars or lumps, valued by its weight.
Example: Spanish ships carried tons of silver bullion from mines in Mexico and Peru back to Spain.
metales preciosos en lingotes — oro o plata en forma de barras o lingotes, que vale según su peso.
Learn it: Economic drivers of exploration and colonialismFull page
the repeated rise and fall of a nation's economy, moving through expansion, peak, contraction and trough.
Example: The U.S. economy shrank during the 2007–2009 recession and then grew for more than ten years, until 2020.
ciclo económico — la subida y bajada repetida de la economía de un país, que pasa por expansión, pico, contracción y valle.
the group of top advisers to the President, made up mostly of the heads of the executive departments.
Example: George Washington's first Cabinet had four members, including Thomas Jefferson as Secretary of State.
gabinete — el grupo de asesores principales del presidente, formado sobre todo por los jefes de los departamentos ejecutivos.
human-made tools, machines and buildings used to produce goods and services; in economics it does not mean money.
Example: A bakery's ovens, mixers and delivery van are its capital.
capital — las herramientas, máquinas y edificios hechos por personas que se usan para producir bienes y servicios; en economía no significa dinero.
an economic system based on private ownership of businesses and on free markets, where prices guide what is made.
Example: During the Cold War, the capitalist United States competed with the communist Soviet Union.
capitalismo — un sistema económico basado en la propiedad privada de las empresas y en el libre mercado, donde los precios guían lo que se produce.
a crop grown mainly to sell for profit rather than to feed the farmer's family.
Example: Tobacco was colonial Virginia's main cash crop and was shipped to England by the ton.
cultivo comercial — un cultivo que se siembra sobre todo para venderlo y ganar dinero, no para alimentar a la familia del agricultor.
Learn it: European settlement and population of the AmericasFull page
a meeting of party members who discuss the candidates and choose whom to support.
Example: In the Iowa caucuses, voters gather in schools and churches to pick presidential candidates.
caucus — una reunión de miembros de un partido que hablan de los candidatos y escogen a quién apoyar.
Learn it: Political parties, campaigns and electionsFull page
an official count of all the people in a country, often with facts about their age, home and family.
Example: The Constitution requires a census every 10 years; the 2020 Census counted about 331 million people.
censo — un conteo oficial de todas las personas de un país, a menudo con datos sobre su edad, su vivienda y su familia.
land that one country gives up to another, usually by a treaty.
Example: In the Mexican Cession of 1848, Mexico gave up California and most of today's American Southwest.
cesión — tierra que un país le entrega a otro, por lo general por medio de un tratado.
Learn it: European settlement and population of the AmericasFull page
a pattern in which migrants move to a place because relatives or neighbors moved there before them.
Example: Many Irish immigrants settled in Boston because cousins who had arrived earlier helped them find work.
migración en cadena — un patrón en el que los migrantes se mudan a un lugar porque familiares o vecinos se mudaron allí antes.
the system in which each branch of government can limit the power of the other two.
Example: The President can veto a bill, but Congress can override the veto with a two-thirds vote in each house.
pesos y contrapesos — el sistema en el que cada rama del gobierno puede limitar el poder de las otras dos.
chronological order lists events from earliest to latest; a timeline shows events in that order along a line.
Example: In chronological order: Declaration of Independence (1776), Constitution signed (1787), Bill of Rights added (1791).
orden cronológico / línea de tiempo — el orden cronológico pone los sucesos del más antiguo al más reciente; una línea de tiempo los muestra en ese orden a lo largo de una línea.
a legal member of a country who has full rights, such as voting, and duties, such as serving on a jury.
Example: Under the Fourteenth Amendment, people born in the United States are U.S. citizens.
ciudadano — un miembro legal de un país que tiene todos los derechos, como votar, y deberes, como servir de jurado.
Learn it: Individual rights and civic responsibilitiesFull page
an independent city that governs itself and the farmland around it.
Example: Ancient Athens and Sparta were rival Greek city-states, each with its own government and army.
ciudad-estado — una ciudad independiente que se gobierna a sí misma y gobierna las tierras de cultivo a su alrededor.
something the law requires you to do as a citizen or resident, with a penalty if you do not.
Example: Serving on a jury when you are called and paying taxes are civic duties.
deber cívico — algo que la ley te obliga a hacer como ciudadano o residente, con una sanción si no lo haces.
Learn it: Individual rights and civic responsibilitiesFull page
something you are not required to do but choose to do because it helps your community and democracy.
Example: Voting in elections and volunteering at a food bank are civic responsibilities.
responsabilidad cívica — algo que no estás obligado a hacer, pero que eliges hacer porque ayuda a tu comunidad y a la democracia.
Learn it: Individual rights and civic responsibilitiesFull page
openly and peacefully breaking a law you believe is unjust and accepting the punishment.
Example: In 1955, Rosa Parks refused to give up her bus seat in Montgomery, Alabama, and was arrested.
desobediencia civil — violar abierta y pacíficamente una ley que consideras injusta y aceptar el castigo.
the rights of every person to equal treatment under the law, such as voting and equal access to schools and jobs.
Example: The Civil Rights Act of 1964 banned discrimination by race, color, religion, sex or national origin in jobs and public places.
derechos civiles — los derechos de toda persona a un trato igual ante la ley, como votar y tener acceso igual a escuelas y empleos.
the 1861–1865 war between the Union and the Confederacy, fought mainly over slavery and whether states could leave the nation.
Example: About 620,000 soldiers died in the Civil War, which ended soon after Robert E. Lee surrendered in April 1865.
Guerra Civil (Guerra de Secesión) — la guerra de 1861–1865 entre la Unión y la Confederación, causada sobre todo por la esclavitud y por si los estados podían separarse de la nación.
a complex society with cities, an organized government, specialized jobs and usually a system of writing.
Example: Sumer, in today's Iraq, had cities, kings, priests and cuneiform writing by about 3000 BCE.
civilización — una sociedad compleja con ciudades, un gobierno organizado, trabajos especializados y, por lo general, un sistema de escritura.
the usual pattern of weather in a place over many years, not on a single day.
Example: Phoenix, Arizona, has a desert climate, with only about 8 inches of rain a year.
clima — el patrón habitual del tiempo en un lugar a lo largo de muchos años, no en un solo día.
in a closed primary only voters registered with a party may vote; in an open primary any voter may choose a party's ballot.
Example: New York holds closed primaries, so an independent voter there cannot vote in either major party's primary.
primaria cerrada / abierta — en una primaria cerrada solo votan los inscritos en un partido; en una primaria abierta cualquier votante puede escoger la boleta de un partido.
Learn it: Political parties, campaigns and electionsFull page
coinsurance is the percent of a bill you pay after the deductible; a copay is a flat fee you pay for each visit.
Example: With 20% coinsurance you pay $200 of a $1,000 bill, while a $25 copay is the same at every visit.
coseguro / copago — el coseguro es el porcentaje de una factura que pagas después del deducible; el copago es una cantidad fija que pagas en cada consulta.
the long rivalry, from about 1947 to 1991, between the United States and the Soviet Union, without a direct war between them.
Example: The Berlin Wall, built in 1961 and torn down in 1989, was the best-known symbol of the Cold War.
Guerra Fría — la larga rivalidad, más o menos de 1947 a 1991, entre Estados Unidos y la Unión Soviética, sin una guerra directa entre ambos.
talks between a labor union and an employer to agree on pay, hours and working conditions.
Example: Through collective bargaining in 2023, the United Auto Workers won a 25% raise spread over about four years.
negociación colectiva — las negociaciones entre un sindicato y un empleador para acordar el pago, el horario y las condiciones de trabajo.
a system in which one country takes control of another territory and rules its people.
Example: Britain ruled India as a colony until India won its independence in 1947.
colonialismo — un sistema en el que un país toma el control de otro territorio y gobierna a su gente.
a settlement or territory ruled by a country that is usually far away.
Example: Virginia, settled at Jamestown in 1607, was England's first permanent colony in North America.
colonia — un asentamiento o territorio gobernado por un país que por lo general está lejos.
Learn it: European settlement and population of the AmericasFull page
the transfer of plants, animals, people and diseases between the Americas and the rest of the world after 1492.
Example: Potatoes and corn went from the Americas to Europe, while horses, cattle and smallpox came to the Americas.
intercambio colombino (Columbian Exchange) — el intercambio de plantas, animales, personas y enfermedades entre las Américas y el resto del mundo después de 1492.
Learn it: European settlement and population of the AmericasFull page
an economic system in which the government decides what to produce, how to produce it and who gets it.
Example: In the Soviet Union, government planners set how much steel, grain and shoes each factory and farm had to make.
economía planificada (de mando) — un sistema económico en el que el gobierno decide qué se produce, cómo se produce y quién lo recibe.
a small group of lawmakers who study bills on one topic and decide which ones move forward.
Example: Most bills sent to committees in Congress never get a vote, so they "die in committee."
comité — un grupo pequeño de legisladores que estudia los proyectos de ley sobre un tema y decide cuáles avanzan.
Learn it: Structure and design of the U.S. governmentFull page
a system in which the government owns land and businesses and a single party holds all political power.
Example: The Soviet Union was a communist state from its founding in 1922 until it broke up in 1991.
comunismo — un sistema en el que el gobierno es dueño de las tierras y las empresas, y un solo partido tiene todo el poder político.
a formal written agreement among a group of people about how they will govern themselves.
Example: In 1620, the Pilgrims signed the Mayflower Compact, promising to obey laws made for the good of the colony.
pacto (compact) — un acuerdo formal por escrito entre un grupo de personas sobre cómo se van a gobernar.
being able to produce a good at a lower opportunity cost than someone else, which is the basis for trade.
Example: A lawyer who types faster than her assistant still has him do the typing, because her hours are worth more in court.
ventaja comparativa — poder producir un bien con un costo de oportunidad más bajo que otro, lo que es la base del comercio.
interest paid on the original amount plus on the interest already earned.
Example: $1,000 at 10% compound interest grows to $1,100 after one year and to $1,210 after two.
interés compuesto — interés que se paga sobre la cantidad original y también sobre el interés que ya se ganó.
powers that the national government and the state governments both have.
Example: Both the federal government and your state can collect taxes and borrow money.
poderes concurrentes — poderes que tienen tanto el gobierno nacional como los gobiernos estatales.
Learn it: Structure and design of the U.S. governmentFull page
the Confederate States of America, the 11 Southern states that left the Union in 1860–61 and fought the Civil War.
Example: Jefferson Davis was the president of the Confederacy, and its capital was Richmond, Virginia.
Confederación — los Estados Confederados de América, los 11 estados del Sur que se separaron de la Unión en 1860–61 y pelearon en la Guerra Civil.
a loose union of independent states that keep most of the power and share a weak central government.
Example: Under the Articles of Confederation (1781–1789), Congress could not collect taxes from the states.
confederación — una unión poco estrecha de estados independientes que conservan casi todo el poder y comparten un gobierno central débil.
a temporary group of House and Senate members who work out one final version of a bill that both chambers passed.
Example: If the House and Senate pass different versions of a farm bill, a conference committee settles the differences.
comité de conferencia — un grupo temporal de miembros de la Cámara y del Senado que preparan una sola versión final de un proyecto de ley que aprobaron ambas cámaras.
Learn it: Structure and design of the U.S. governmentFull page
the lawmaking branch of the national government, made up of the Senate (100 members) and the House of Representatives (435 voting members).
Example: Congress meets in the U.S. Capitol in Washington, D.C., and only Congress can declare war.
Congreso — el poder legislativo del gobierno nacional, formado por el Senado (100 miembros) y la Cámara de Representantes (435 miembros con voto).
Learn it: Structure and design of the U.S. governmentFull page
a Spanish soldier and explorer who conquered lands in the Americas in the 1500s.
Example: Hernán Cortés conquered the Aztec Empire in Mexico in 1521.
conquistador — un soldado y explorador español que conquistó tierras en las Américas en el siglo XVI.
Learn it: European settlement and population of the AmericasFull page
the idea that a government gets its right to rule from the agreement of the people it governs.
Example: The Declaration of Independence says governments get "their just powers from the consent of the governed."
consentimiento de los gobernados — la idea de que un gobierno obtiene su derecho a gobernar del acuerdo del pueblo al que gobierna.
the careful use and protection of natural resources so they are not wasted or destroyed.
Example: President Theodore Roosevelt protected about 230 million acres of public land, including national forests.
conservación — el uso cuidadoso y la protección de los recursos naturales para que no se desperdicien ni se destruyan.
the supreme law of the United States, written in 1787, which sets up the national government and protects citizens' rights.
Example: The Constitution was signed in Philadelphia on September 17, 1787, and has been amended 27 times.
Constitución — la ley suprema de Estados Unidos, escrita en 1787, que establece el gobierno nacional y protege los derechos de los ciudadanos.
a government with a king or queen whose power is limited by a constitution, while elected lawmakers do the governing.
Example: The United Kingdom has King Charles III, but Parliament and the prime minister run the government.
monarquía constitucional — un gobierno con un rey o una reina cuyo poder está limitado por una constitución, mientras que los legisladores elegidos gobiernan.
Learn it: Types of modern and historical governmentsFull page
a measure of the average change over time in the prices of a "basket" of goods and services that households buy.
Example: The CPI rose about 9% from June 2021 to June 2022, the fastest rise in about 40 years.
Índice de Precios al Consumidor (IPC) — una medida del cambio promedio con el tiempo en los precios de una "canasta" de bienes y servicios que compran los hogares.
the U.S. Cold War policy of stopping communism from spreading to new countries.
Example: Under containment, the United States sent aid to Greece and Turkey in 1947 to help them resist communist pressure.
contención — la política de EE. UU. durante la Guerra Fría de impedir que el comunismo se extendiera a nuevos países.
switching factories from making civilian goods to making military goods during a war.
Example: In World War II, U.S. car plants stopped making cars from 1942 to 1945 and built tanks and bombers instead.
conversión — cambiar las fábricas de la producción de bienes civiles a la de bienes militares durante una guerra.
correlation means two things change together; causation means one thing actually makes the other happen.
Example: Ice cream sales and drownings both rise in summer, but ice cream does not cause drownings; hot weather drives both.
correlación / causalidad — correlación significa que dos cosas cambian juntas; causalidad significa que una cosa de verdad hace que pase la otra.
a number, usually from 300 to 850, that shows lenders how likely you are to repay what you borrow.
Example: Paying every bill on time, month after month, is the best way to raise a credit score.
puntaje de crédito — un número, por lo general de 300 a 850, que les muestra a los prestamistas qué tan probable es que pagues lo que pides prestado.
the share of your available credit card limit that you are using, found by dividing balances by limits.
Example: A $900 balance on a card with a $3,000 limit is a 30% utilization ratio.
tasa de utilización del crédito — la parte de tu límite de crédito disponible que estás usando; se calcula dividiendo los saldos entre los límites.
an area where people share cultural traits such as language, religion or customs.
Example: Latin America is a cultural region where most people speak Spanish or Portuguese.
región cultural — una zona donde la gente comparte rasgos culturales, como el idioma, la religión o las costumbres.
a system of wedge-shaped writing pressed into clay tablets, first used in ancient Mesopotamia.
Example: Sumerian scribes kept records of grain and taxes in cuneiform more than 5,000 years ago.
escritura cuneiforme — un sistema de escritura en forma de cuña marcada en tablillas de arcilla, que se usó primero en la antigua Mesopotamia.
the 1776 document in which the 13 colonies declared themselves free from Britain and explained their reasons.
Example: Thomas Jefferson wrote most of it, and Congress adopted it on July 4, 1776, now celebrated as Independence Day.
Declaración de Independencia — el documento de 1776 en el que las 13 colonias se declararon libres de Gran Bretaña y explicaron sus razones.
the amount you must pay yourself each year before your insurance starts to pay.
Example: With a $500 deductible, you pay the first $500 of your medical bills each year.
deducible — la cantidad que debes pagar tú cada año antes de que el seguro empiece a pagar.
any amount taken out of your gross pay before you get your paycheck.
Example: Federal income tax, Social Security and a health insurance premium are common paycheck deductions.
deducción — cualquier cantidad que se resta de tu pago bruto antes de que recibas tu cheque.
a government spending more than it collects in a year and borrowing to cover the difference.
Example: During World War II, the U.S. government borrowed heavily, and the national debt grew about fivefold.
gasto deficitario — que un gobierno gaste en un año más de lo que recauda y pida prestado para cubrir la diferencia.
a general fall in prices across the whole economy over a period of time.
Example: During the Great Depression, U.S. prices fell by about 25% from 1929 to 1933.
deflación — una baja general de los precios en toda la economía durante un período de tiempo.
a person chosen to represent voters at a party's national convention, where the party picks its presidential nominee.
Example: A candidate needs a majority of the convention's delegates to win the party's nomination.
delegado — una persona escogida para representar a los votantes en la convención nacional de un partido, donde el partido elige a su candidato presidencial.
Learn it: Political parties, campaigns and electionsFull page
how much of a good or service buyers are willing and able to buy at each possible price.
Example: Demand for umbrellas rises on rainy days, even when the price stays the same.
demanda — cuánto de un bien o servicio quieren y pueden comprar los compradores a cada precio posible.
sending troops home after a war and returning the economy to peacetime production.
Example: After World War II, U.S. armed forces shrank from about 12 million people in 1945 to about 1.5 million in 1947.
desmovilización — mandar a las tropas a casa después de una guerra y regresar la economía a la producción de tiempos de paz.
a government in which the people hold power and rule, either directly or through elected leaders.
Example: The word comes from the Greek demos, "people," and kratos, "rule"; ancient Athens was an early democracy.
democracia — un gobierno en el que el pueblo tiene el poder y gobierna, ya sea directamente o por medio de líderes elegidos.
Learn it: Types of modern and historical governmentsFull page
statistics that describe a population, such as age, sex, income and education.
Example: The 2020 Census showed that about 17% of Americans were 65 or older.
datos demográficos — estadísticas que describen una población, como la edad, el sexo, los ingresos y la educación.
the Cabinet department created in 2002, after 9/11, by combining 22 federal agencies to protect the country at home.
Example: The Transportation Security Administration, which screens passengers at airports, is part of DHS.
Departamento de Seguridad Nacional (DHS) — el departamento del gabinete creado en 2002, después del 11 de septiembre, al unir 22 agencias federales para proteger al país dentro de sus fronteras.
a government guarantee that savers will get their money back, up to a limit, if an insured bank fails.
Example: The FDIC, created in 1933, now insures bank deposits up to $250,000 per person at each bank.
seguro de depósitos — una garantía del gobierno de que los ahorradores recuperarán su dinero, hasta un límite, si un banco asegurado quiebra.
a very long and very deep downturn in the economy, with high unemployment and many business failures.
Example: The Great Depression of the 1930s was the worst depression in U.S. history.
depresión — una caída de la economía muy larga y muy profunda, con mucho desempleo y muchas empresas en quiebra.
the easing of tensions between the United States and the Soviet Union in the 1970s.
Example: In 1972, President Nixon and Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev signed SALT I to limit nuclear weapons.
distensión (détente) — la reducción de las tensiones entre Estados Unidos y la Unión Soviética en la década de 1970.
preventing an attack by making sure an enemy knows it would face a devastating response.
Example: In the Cold War, each superpower's nuclear weapons discouraged the other from attacking first.
disuasión — evitar un ataque haciendo que el enemigo sepa que recibiría una respuesta devastadora.
rule by one person who holds power by force, with no free elections and no legal limits.
Example: North Korea has been ruled as a dictatorship by the Kim family since 1948.
dictadura — gobierno de una sola persona que mantiene el poder por la fuerza, sin elecciones libres ni límites legales.
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a form of government in which citizens vote on laws themselves instead of electing others to do it.
Example: In many New England towns, residents meet once a year at a town meeting to vote on the budget.
democracia directa — una forma de gobierno en la que los ciudadanos votan ellos mismos las leyes en vez de elegir a otros para que lo hagan.
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federal spending that Congress must approve each year through appropriation laws.
Example: Defense, highways and education grants are discretionary spending; defense is the largest part.
gasto discrecional — el gasto federal que el Congreso debe aprobar cada año por medio de leyes de asignación de fondos.
a slowdown in the rate of inflation, when prices are still rising but more slowly than before.
Example: U.S. inflation fell from about 9% in mid-2022 to about 3% in mid-2023, which was disinflation.
desinflación — una desaceleración de la tasa de inflación: los precios siguen subiendo, pero más despacio que antes.
land that two or more countries claim as their own, often leading to conflict.
Example: India and Pakistan have fought several wars over the disputed region of Kashmir since 1947.
territorio en disputa — tierra que dos o más países reclaman como suya, lo que a menudo causa conflictos.
spreading your savings across many different investments to lower the risk of losing money.
Example: An index fund that owns shares of 500 companies is more diversified than stock in a single company.
diversificación — repartir tus ahorros entre muchas inversiones distintas para bajar el riesgo de perder dinero.
splitting a job into small tasks, each done by a different worker.
Example: Adam Smith described a pin factory where 10 workers, each doing one step, made about 48,000 pins a day.
división del trabajo — dividir un trabajo en tareas pequeñas, cada una hecha por un trabajador distinto.
the Cold War belief that if one country fell to communism, its neighbors would soon fall too.
Example: U.S. leaders used the domino theory to explain sending troops to Vietnam in the 1960s.
teoría del dominó — la creencia de la Guerra Fría de que, si un país caía en el comunismo, sus vecinos pronto caerían también.
being put on trial twice for the same crime after a verdict, which the Fifth Amendment forbids.
Example: If a jury finds a person not guilty of a robbery, the state cannot try that person again for the same robbery.
doble enjuiciamiento — ser juzgado dos veces por el mismo delito después de un veredicto, algo que prohíbe la Quinta Enmienda.
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the rule that the government must follow fair, set legal steps before taking away a person's life, liberty or property.
Example: A person charged with a crime has the right to a fair trial before a judge can send them to prison.
debido proceso — la regla de que el gobierno debe seguir pasos legales justos y establecidos antes de quitarle a una persona la vida, la libertad o la propiedad.
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a series of rulers from the same family, with power passed down from one generation to the next.
Example: The Han dynasty ruled China for about 400 years, from 206 BCE to 220 CE.
dinastía — una serie de gobernantes de la misma familia, con un poder que pasa de una generación a la siguiente.
describes demand that changes by a larger percent than the price does, often for luxuries or goods with many substitutes.
Example: If one brand of soda raises its price 10%, many buyers switch brands and its sales may drop 30%.
elástica — describe la demanda que cambia en un porcentaje mayor que el precio, como suele pasar con los lujos o los bienes con muchos sustitutos.
how strongly the quantity people buy responds to a change in price.
Example: Demand for movie tickets is more elastic than demand for heart medicine.
elasticidad de la demanda — qué tanto cambia la cantidad que la gente compra cuando cambia el precio.
an elector is one of the 538 people who formally choose the President; together they form the Electoral College.
Example: A candidate needs at least 270 of the 538 electoral votes to win the presidency.
elector / Colegio Electoral — un elector es una de las 538 personas que eligen formalmente al presidente; juntas forman el Colegio Electoral.
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the act of freeing people from slavery or from other legal control.
Example: Slavery ended in the whole United States when the Thirteenth Amendment was ratified in 1865.
emancipación — el acto de liberar a las personas de la esclavitud o de otro control legal.
President Lincoln's 1863 order declaring enslaved people free in the Confederate states that were fighting the Union.
Example: The Proclamation took effect on January 1, 1863, and opened the Union Army to Black men; about 180,000 served.
Proclamación de Emancipación — la orden del presidente Lincoln de 1863 que declaró libres a las personas esclavizadas en los estados confederados que peleaban contra la Unión.
an official government ban on trade with another country.
Example: In 1973, Arab oil-producing nations stopped selling oil to the United States, and gas prices soared.
embargo — una prohibición oficial de un gobierno de comerciar con otro país.
to leave your home country to live in another (the prefix e- means "out"); an emigrant is a person who does this.
Example: More than a million people emigrated from Ireland during the famine of 1845–1852.
emigrar / emigrante — salir de tu país de origen para vivir en otro (el prefijo e- significa "hacia afuera"); un emigrante es una persona que hace esto.
a group of many lands and peoples ruled by one government or one ruler.
Example: At its height around 117 CE, the Roman Empire stretched from Britain to Egypt and the Middle East.
imperio — un conjunto de muchas tierras y pueblos gobernados por un solo gobierno o un solo gobernante.
a Spanish colonial system that gave colonists the right to demand labor and tribute from Indigenous people.
Example: Under the encomienda, Indigenous people in Mexico and the Caribbean were forced to work in fields and mines for Spanish settlers.
encomienda — un sistema colonial español que les daba a los colonos el derecho a exigir trabajo y tributo a los pueblos indígenas.
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a 1689 English law that limited the power of the king or queen and protected some rights of Parliament and the people.
Example: The English Bill of Rights banned "cruel and unusual punishments," words later copied into the U.S. Eighth Amendment.
Carta de Derechos inglesa (English Bill of Rights) — una ley inglesa de 1689 que limitó el poder del rey o la reina y protegió algunos derechos del Parlamento y del pueblo.
Learn it: Principles of American constitutional democracyFull page
a person who takes the risk of starting and running a new business.
Example: Madam C. J. Walker built a hair-care company in the early 1900s and became one of America's first self-made female millionaires.
emprendedor — una persona que asume el riesgo de abrir y manejar un negocio nuevo.
powers that the Constitution lists in writing as belonging to the national government.
Example: Article I gives Congress the power to coin money, declare war and collect taxes.
poderes enumerados (expresos) — poderes que la Constitución enumera por escrito como propios del gobierno nacional.
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colonial products that, by English law, could be shipped only to England or to other English colonies.
Example: Virginia tobacco was an enumerated good, so planters could not sell it directly to France.
productos enumerados — productos coloniales que, por ley inglesa, solo se podían enviar a Inglaterra o a otras colonias inglesas.
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the Fourteenth Amendment rule that a state must apply its laws the same way to everyone.
Example: In Brown v. Board of Education (1954), the Supreme Court ruled that public schools separated by race violated equal protection.
igual protección de las leyes — la regla de la Decimocuarta Enmienda de que un estado debe aplicar sus leyes de la misma manera a todos.
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the price at which the amount buyers want equals the amount sellers offer, so there is no shortage or surplus.
Example: If bakers offer 200 pies at $10 and shoppers want exactly 200 at $10, then $10 is the equilibrium price.
equilibrio — el precio en el que la cantidad que quieren los compradores es igual a la que ofrecen los vendedores, así que no hay faltante ni excedente.
the wearing away of soil or rock by wind, water or ice.
Example: During the Dust Bowl of the 1930s, strong winds blew away tons of topsoil from Great Plains farms.
erosión — el desgaste del suelo o de las rocas por el viento, el agua o el hielo.
a group of people who share ancestry, culture and often a language or religion.
Example: Mexican Americans are the largest Hispanic ethnic group in the United States.
grupo étnico — un grupo de personas que comparten ascendencia, cultura y, a menudo, un idioma o una religión.
the part of government that carries out and enforces the laws, led at the national level by the President.
Example: The executive branch includes the Vice President, the Cabinet and agencies such as the FBI and the EPA.
poder ejecutivo — la parte del gobierno que aplica y hace cumplir las leyes, encabezada a nivel nacional por el presidente.
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an order from the President that tells federal agencies how to carry out laws; it is not passed by Congress.
Example: In 1948, President Truman signed an executive order to end racial segregation in the armed forces.
orden ejecutiva — una orden del presidente que les dice a las agencias federales cómo aplicar las leyes; no la aprueba el Congreso.
a fact can be checked and proven true or false; an opinion is a belief or judgment that cannot be proven.
Example: "The Nineteenth Amendment was ratified in 1920" is a fact; "it was the most important amendment" is an opinion.
hecho / opinión — un hecho se puede comprobar y demostrar si es verdadero o falso; una opinión es una creencia o un juicio que no se puede demostrar.
the four kinds of resources used to make goods and services: land, labor, capital and entrepreneurship.
Example: A pizza shop uses land (its lot), labor (cooks), capital (ovens) and entrepreneurship (the owner's idea and risk).
factores de producción — los cuatro tipos de recursos que se usan para hacer bienes y servicios: tierra, trabajo, capital y espíritu empresarial.
a way of producing goods in a central building with machines, paid workers and fixed hours.
Example: In the 1820s, the textile mills of Lowell, Massachusetts, hired young women to work long shifts at power looms.
sistema de fábricas — una forma de producir bienes en un edificio central con máquinas, trabajadores asalariados y horarios fijos.
a form of dictatorship built on extreme nationalism, one all-powerful leader and the use of force against opponents.
Example: Benito Mussolini set up the first fascist government in Italy in the 1920s.
fascismo — una forma de dictadura basada en el nacionalismo extremo, un líder con todo el poder y el uso de la fuerza contra los opositores.
the interest rate banks charge each other for overnight loans; the Federal Reserve sets a target for it.
Example: In 2022–2023, the Fed raised the federal funds rate from near 0% to over 5% to fight inflation.
tasa de fondos federales — la tasa de interés que los bancos se cobran entre sí por préstamos de un día para otro; la Reserva Federal fija una meta para ella.
the central bank of the United States, created in 1913, which manages the money supply and interest rates.
Example: When the Fed raises interest rates, car loans and mortgages usually cost more.
Reserva Federal (la Fed) — el banco central de Estados Unidos, creado en 1913, que maneja la oferta de dinero y las tasas de interés.
a system in which power is divided between a national government and state governments.
Example: The national government prints money, while each state sets its own rules for driver's licenses.
federalismo — un sistema en el que el poder se divide entre un gobierno nacional y los gobiernos estatales.
85 essays written in 1787–1788 by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison and John Jay urging the states to ratify the Constitution.
Example: In Federalist No. 51, Madison explained how checks and balances keep any one branch from growing too powerful.
El Federalista (Federalist Papers) — 85 ensayos escritos en 1787–1788 por Alexander Hamilton, James Madison y John Jay para pedir a los estados que ratificaran la Constitución.
Learn it: Principles of American constitutional democracyFull page
the Social Security (6.2%) and Medicare (1.45%) taxes taken out of wages; employers pay a matching amount.
Example: On a $1,000 paycheck, FICA takes $62 for Social Security and $14.50 for Medicare.
FICA — los impuestos del Seguro Social (6.2%) y de Medicare (1.45%) que se descuentan del salario; los empleadores pagan una cantidad igual.
the government's decisions about taxes and spending, made by Congress and the President, to steer the economy.
Example: In 2020, Congress sent stimulus checks of up to $1,200 per adult to help the economy during the pandemic.
política fiscal — las decisiones del gobierno sobre impuestos y gastos, que toman el Congreso y el presidente, para guiar la economía.
the 12-month period a government uses for its budget; the federal fiscal year runs from October 1 to September 30.
Example: Federal fiscal year 2025 began on October 1, 2024, and ended on September 30, 2025.
año fiscal — el período de 12 meses que un gobierno usa para su presupuesto; el año fiscal federal va del 1 de octubre al 30 de septiembre.
a cost or bill that stays the same each month, no matter how much a business produces or a household uses.
Example: A bakery's $2,000 monthly rent and a family's $350 car payment are fixed costs.
costo fijo / gasto fijo — un costo o una cuenta que es igual cada mes, sin importar cuánto produzca una empresa o cuánto use un hogar.
movement of people who are made to leave their homes by force, threats or disaster.
Example: On the Trail of Tears (1838–39), the U.S. Army forced about 16,000 Cherokee to leave their land in the Southeast.
migración forzada — el traslado de personas a las que se obliga a dejar sus hogares por la fuerza, por amenazas o por un desastre.
people who had been enslaved and were freed, especially in the United States after the Civil War.
Example: The Freedmen's Bureau, set up in 1865, opened schools for freedpeople across the South.
libertos — personas que habían sido esclavizadas y fueron liberadas, sobre todo en Estados Unidos después de la Guerra Civil.
the war in which Britain fought France and its Native American allies for control of North America, and won.
Example: To pay its war debts after 1763, Britain began taxing the colonies, which angered colonists.
Guerra Franco-Indígena (1754–1763) — la guerra en la que Gran Bretaña peleó contra Francia y sus aliados indígenas por el control de América del Norte, y ganó.
the final election, held in November, in which voters choose among the parties' nominees and other candidates.
Example: The presidential general election is held every four years on the Tuesday after the first Monday in November.
elección general — la elección final, que se hace en noviembre, en la que los votantes escogen entre los candidatos de los partidos y otros candidatos.
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deliberate acts meant to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnic, racial or religious group.
Example: In 1994, about 800,000 people, most of them Tutsi, were killed in the Rwandan genocide.
genocidio — actos deliberados con la intención de destruir, total o parcialmente, a un grupo nacional, étnico, racial o religioso.
a border drawn as a straight line, often along a line of latitude or longitude, instead of following a natural feature.
Example: Much of the U.S.–Canada border follows the 49th parallel, a line of latitude.
frontera geométrica — una frontera trazada como una línea recta, a menudo a lo largo de una latitud o una longitud, en vez de seguir un rasgo natural.
the growing connection of world economies through trade, investment, travel and technology.
Example: A smartphone may be designed in California, built in China with parts from Korea and Japan, and sold around the world.
globalización — la creciente conexión entre las economías del mundo por medio del comercio, la inversión, los viajes y la tecnología.
the worst economic downturn in U.S. history, lasting from the 1929 stock market crash until about 1939.
Example: By 1933, about one in four American workers had no job, and thousands of banks had failed.
Gran Depresión — la peor crisis económica de la historia de EE. UU., que duró desde el desplome de la bolsa de 1929 hasta alrededor de 1939.
the market value of all final goods and services produced within a country in one year.
Example: U.S. GDP was about $27 trillion in 2023, the largest of any country.
producto interno bruto (PIB) — el valor de mercado de todos los bienes y servicios finales producidos dentro de un país en un año.
your total earnings for a pay period before taxes or anything else is taken out.
Example: Working 40 hours at $20 an hour gives a gross pay of $800 for the week.
pago bruto — lo que ganas en total en un período de pago antes de que te descuenten impuestos o cualquier otra cosa.
the official who runs the government day to day and leads its policies.
Example: In the United Kingdom, the prime minister is head of government, while the monarch is head of state.
jefe de gobierno — el funcionario que dirige el gobierno día a día y encabeza sus políticas.
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the official who represents the whole nation at ceremonies and in dealings with other countries.
Example: The U.S. President is both head of state and head of government, but in Japan the emperor is head of state.
jefe de Estado — el funcionario que representa a toda la nación en las ceremonias y en el trato con otros países.
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describes the model of the solar system in which Earth and the other planets travel around the sun.
Example: Nicolaus Copernicus published the heliocentric model in 1543, and Galileo later supported it with telescope observations.
heliocéntrico — describe el modelo del sistema solar en el que la Tierra y los otros planetas giran alrededor del sol.
the ancient Egyptian writing system that used pictures and symbols for words and sounds.
Example: The Rosetta Stone, found in 1799, helped scholars learn to read hieroglyphics.
jeroglíficos — el sistema de escritura del antiguo Egipto, que usaba dibujos y símbolos para representar palabras y sonidos.
the Nazi genocide of about six million Jews, along with millions of other victims, during World War II.
Example: Auschwitz, in Nazi-occupied Poland, was the largest Holocaust death camp; about 1.1 million people were killed there.
Holocausto — el genocidio nazi de unos seis millones de judíos, junto con millones de otras víctimas, durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial.
the civilian life and work in a country while its armed forces are fighting a war.
Example: On the World War II home front, millions of women took factory jobs, a change symbolized by "Rosie the Riveter."
frente interno — la vida y el trabajo de los civiles de un país mientras sus fuerzas armadas pelean en una guerra.
efforts to protect a country from attacks and disasters inside its own borders.
Example: After 9/11, airport security checks became much stricter as part of homeland security.
seguridad nacional (homeland security) — los esfuerzos para proteger a un país de ataques y desastres dentro de sus propias fronteras.
the larger house of Congress, with 435 voting members elected every two years, based on each state's population.
Example: California has the most seats in the House, 52, while six states have only one each.
Cámara de Representantes — la cámara más grande del Congreso, con 435 miembros con voto elegidos cada dos años según la población de cada estado.
Learn it: Structure and design of the U.S. governmentFull page
the skills, knowledge and experience that make a worker more productive.
Example: A nursing degree or a welding certificate adds to a person's human capital.
capital humano — las habilidades, los conocimientos y la experiencia que hacen más productivo a un trabajador.
the study of how people live, settle, work and use the land.
Example: Studying why most Americans live in cities and suburbs is part of human geography.
geografía humana — el estudio de cómo vive la gente, dónde se asienta, cómo trabaja y cómo usa la tierra.
the ways people depend on, adapt to and change their natural surroundings.
Example: Building the Hoover Dam on the Colorado River (finished in 1936) reshaped the land to supply water and electricity.
interacción entre las personas y el medio ambiente — las formas en que la gente depende de su entorno natural, se adapta a él y lo cambia.
extremely fast inflation in which prices can double in weeks or even days.
Example: In Germany in late 1923, a loaf of bread cost about 200 billion marks.
hiperinflación — una inflación extremadamente rápida en la que los precios pueden duplicarse en semanas o incluso en días.
to move into a new country to live there (the prefix im- means "in"); an immigrant is a person who does this.
Example: About 12 million immigrants entered the United States through Ellis Island between 1892 and 1954.
inmigrar / inmigrante — llegar a un país nuevo para vivir en él (el prefijo in- significa "hacia adentro"); un inmigrante es una persona que hace esto.
the body's natural protection against a disease, often gained by surviving it earlier.
Example: Native Americans had no immunity to smallpox, which Europeans brought after 1492, so millions died.
inmunidad — la protección natural del cuerpo contra una enfermedad, que a menudo se obtiene al haberla superado antes.
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the House of Representatives formally charging an official with wrongdoing; the Senate then holds a trial.
Example: Andrew Johnson, Bill Clinton and Donald Trump were impeached, but the Senate did not remove any of them.
juicio político (impeachment) — la acusación formal de un funcionario por parte de la Cámara de Representantes; luego el Senado hace el juicio.
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powers that are not listed in the Constitution but are "necessary and proper" to carry out the listed powers.
Example: Congress created a national bank in 1791 using implied powers, and the Supreme Court upheld this idea in 1819.
poderes implícitos — poderes que no aparecen en la Constitución pero que son "necesarios y apropiados" para llevar a cabo los poderes escritos.
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forcing men to serve as sailors in a navy against their will.
Example: Britain's impressment of thousands of American sailors was a major cause of the War of 1812.
reclutamiento forzoso (impressment) — obligar a hombres a servir como marineros en una marina de guerra contra su voluntad.
a reward or a penalty that encourages people to change what they do.
Example: A $100 rebate for buying an energy-saving fridge is a positive incentive; a parking fine is a negative one.
incentivo — una recompensa o un castigo que motiva a la gente a cambiar lo que hace.
applying the Bill of Rights to state governments, not just the federal government, through the Fourteenth Amendment.
Example: In Gideon v. Wainwright (1963), the Supreme Court required states to give poor defendants a free lawyer.
incorporación — aplicar la Carta de Derechos a los gobiernos estatales, y no solo al federal, por medio de la Decimocuarta Enmienda.
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a person who agreed to work for a set number of years, often four to seven, in exchange for passage to the colonies.
Example: Many early settlers in Virginia came as indentured servants to work on tobacco farms.
sirviente por contrato (indentured servant) — una persona que aceptaba trabajar un número fijo de años, a menudo de cuatro a siete, a cambio del pasaje a las colonias.
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the shift, starting in Britain in the late 1700s, from making goods by hand to making them with machines in factories.
Example: Steam engines and textile mills spread from Britain to the United States in the early 1800s.
Revolución Industrial — el cambio, que empezó en Gran Bretaña a finales del siglo XVIII, de hacer bienes a mano a hacerlos con máquinas en fábricas.
describes demand that changes by a smaller percent than the price, often for necessities with few substitutes.
Example: When gas prices jump, most people still fill their tanks to get to work, so demand for gasoline is inelastic.
inelástica — describe la demanda que cambia en un porcentaje menor que el precio, como suele pasar con las necesidades que tienen pocos sustitutos.
a general rise in prices over time, so each dollar buys less than before.
Example: A movie ticket cost about 25 cents in 1940 and about $11 in 2023.
inflación — un aumento general de los precios con el tiempo, así que cada dólar compra menos que antes.
an economy in which much of the value comes from knowledge, data and services rather than physical goods.
Example: Companies like Google earn most of their money from data and online services, not from physical products.
economía de la información — una economía en la que gran parte del valor viene del conocimiento, los datos y los servicios, más que de los bienes físicos.
an armed uprising by rebels against a government or an occupying force.
Example: After the 2003 invasion of Iraq, U.S. troops fought an insurgency that used roadside bombs and ambushes.
insurgencia — un levantamiento armado de rebeldes contra un gobierno o una fuerza de ocupación.
ending the separation of people by race so that schools and public places are open to all.
Example: In 1957, federal troops escorted nine Black students into Central High School in Little Rock, Arkansas.
integración / fin de la segregación — acabar con la separación de las personas por raza para que las escuelas y los lugares públicos estén abiertos a todos.
identical, standard-made parts that can replace one another in any copy of a product.
Example: Around 1800, Eli Whitney promoted muskets with interchangeable parts, so a broken piece could be swapped quickly.
piezas intercambiables — piezas idénticas, hechas según un mismo modelo, que se pueden cambiar unas por otras en cualquier ejemplar de un producto.
the price paid for using someone else's money: banks pay it to savers and charge it to borrowers.
Example: A $1,000 savings account earning 4% a year pays $40 in interest.
interés — el precio que se paga por usar el dinero de otro: los bancos se lo pagan a quienes ahorran y se lo cobran a quienes piden prestado.
an organized group that tries to influence government policy on its issues but does not run its own candidates.
Example: AARP, with tens of millions of members age 50 and older, lobbies Congress on Social Security and Medicare.
grupo de interés — un grupo organizado que trata de influir en las políticas del gobierno sobre sus temas, pero no presenta sus propios candidatos.
Learn it: Political parties, campaigns and electionsFull page
moving from one place to another within the same country.
Example: In the Great Migration (about 1910–1970), some six million Black Americans moved from the South to cities in the North and West.
migración interna — mudarse de un lugar a otro para vivir, sin salir del mismo país.
a person forced to flee their home who stays inside their own country instead of crossing a border.
Example: Millions of Syrians who fled fighting to other parts of Syria after 2011 became internally displaced persons.
desplazado interno (IDP) — una persona obligada a huir de su hogar que se queda dentro de su propio país en vez de cruzar una frontera.
moving from one country to another country to live there for a long time or for good.
Example: A family that moves from Guatemala to Texas is part of international migration.
migración internacional — mudarse de un país a otro para vivir allí por mucho tiempo o para siempre.
to formally call on a rule, law or agreement and put it into effect.
Example: On September 12, 2001, NATO invoked Article 5, treating the 9/11 attacks as an attack on all its members.
invocar — recurrir formalmente a una regla, una ley o un acuerdo y ponerlo en vigor.
the Cold War dividing line between communist Eastern Europe and democratic Western Europe.
Example: In 1946, Winston Churchill said that "an iron curtain has descended across the Continent."
Telón de Acero — la línea que dividía, durante la Guerra Fría, la Europa del Este comunista de la Europa Occidental democrática.
bringing water to farmland through canals, pipes or ditches so crops can grow.
Example: Ancient Egyptians dug canals from the Nile River to water their fields.
riego (irrigación) — llevar agua a las tierras de cultivo por medio de canales, tuberías o zanjas para que crezcan las cosechas.
a policy of staying out of other nations' conflicts and alliances.
Example: In the 1930s, Congress passed Neutrality Acts to keep the United States out of another European war.
aislacionismo — una política de mantenerse fuera de los conflictos y las alianzas de otras naciones.
state and local laws, mainly in the South from the 1870s to the 1960s, that enforced racial segregation.
Example: Under Jim Crow laws, Black passengers in Alabama had to sit in the back of city buses.
leyes de Jim Crow — leyes estatales y locales, sobre todo en el Sur desde la década de 1870 hasta la de 1960, que imponían la segregación racial.
a business owned by many investors who buy shares and split the profits and the risks.
Example: The Virginia Company, a joint-stock company, paid for the founding of Jamestown in 1607.
compañía por acciones — un negocio de muchos inversionistas que compran acciones y se reparten las ganancias y los riesgos.
Learn it: Economic drivers of exploration and colonialismFull page
the part of government that interprets the laws and decides cases, led at the national level by the Supreme Court.
Example: Article III of the Constitution creates the judicial branch, and federal judges can serve for life.
poder judicial — la parte del gobierno que interpreta las leyes y decide los casos, encabezada a nivel nacional por la Corte Suprema.
Learn it: Structure and design of the U.S. governmentFull page
the power of courts to strike down laws or government actions that violate the Constitution.
Example: The Supreme Court first used judicial review to strike down a federal law in Marbury v. Madison (1803).
revisión judicial — el poder de los tribunales para anular leyes o acciones del gobierno que violan la Constitución.
the physical and mental work people do to produce goods and services.
Example: The hours a cook spends preparing meals in a restaurant are labor.
trabajo (mano de obra) — el esfuerzo físico y mental que hace la gente para producir bienes y servicios.
all people age 16 and older who have a job or are actively looking for one.
Example: Retirees and full-time students who are not looking for work are not counted in the labor force.
fuerza laboral — todas las personas de 16 años o más que tienen trabajo o lo buscan activamente.
a situation in which there are more open jobs than workers available to fill them.
Example: During World War II, millions of men joined the military, and factories faced a labor shortage.
escasez de mano de obra — una situación en la que hay más empleos disponibles que trabajadores para ocuparlos.
an organization of workers that bargains with employers for better pay, hours and working conditions.
Example: The American Federation of Labor, founded in 1886, united unions of skilled workers from many trades.
sindicato — una organización de trabajadores que negocia con los empleadores para conseguir mejor pago, horario y condiciones de trabajo.
in economics, all the natural resources used to make goods and services, not just the ground.
Example: Farmland, oil, water and timber all count as land.
tierra — en economía, todos los recursos naturales que se usan para producir bienes y servicios, no solo el suelo.
a court case, usually decided by the Supreme Court, that sets an important precedent and changes how the law is understood.
Example: Miranda v. Arizona (1966) is a landmark case: police must tell suspects they have the right to remain silent.
caso histórico — un caso judicial, por lo general decidido por la Corte Suprema, que sienta un precedente importante y cambia la forma de entender la ley.
Learn it: Individual rights and civic responsibilitiesFull page
imaginary lines that measure distance north or south of the equator (latitude) and east or west of the prime meridian (longitude).
Example: New Orleans is at about 30° N latitude and 90° W longitude.
latitud / longitud — líneas imaginarias que miden la distancia al norte o al sur del ecuador (latitud) y al este o al oeste del meridiano de Greenwich (longitud).
a written set of laws and the punishments for breaking them.
Example: The Code of Hammurabi, carved in stone in Babylon around 1754 BCE, had 282 laws.
código de leyes — un conjunto escrito de leyes y de los castigos por violarlas.
the rule that when the price of a good rises, people buy less of it, and when the price falls, they buy more.
Example: When a store cuts the price of strawberries from $4 to $2 a box, it sells many more boxes.
ley de la demanda — la regla de que, cuando el precio de un bien sube, la gente compra menos, y cuando baja, compra más.
the rule that when the price of a good rises, sellers offer more of it, and when the price falls, they offer less.
Example: When corn prices rise, farmers plant more corn the next season.
ley de la oferta — la regla de que, cuando el precio de un bien sube, los vendedores ofrecen más, y cuando baja, ofrecen menos.
the box on a map that explains what its symbols, lines and colors mean.
Example: On a road map, the legend might show that a red line is an interstate highway and a star is a state capital.
leyenda (clave) — el recuadro de un mapa que explica qué significan sus símbolos, líneas y colores.
the part of government that makes the laws; at the national level, it is Congress.
Example: Article I of the Constitution creates the legislative branch and gives it the power to declare war.
poder legislativo — la parte del gobierno que hace las leyes; a nivel nacional, es el Congreso.
Learn it: Structure and design of the U.S. governmentFull page
an elected group of people with the power to make laws for a nation or a state.
Example: Every state has its own legislature, and all of them except Nebraska's have two houses.
legislatura — un grupo de personas elegidas con el poder de hacer las leyes de una nación o de un estado.
Learn it: Structure and design of the U.S. governmentFull page
the 1941 law that let the United States lend or lease weapons and supplies to nations fighting the Axis.
Example: Through Lend-Lease, the United States sent about $50 billion in aid, mostly to Britain and the Soviet Union.
Préstamo y Arriendo (Lend-Lease) — la ley de 1941 que permitió a Estados Unidos prestar o arrendar armas y suministros a las naciones que luchaban contra el Eje.
the principle that government may do only what the people allow in a constitution and must respect certain rights.
Example: The First Amendment says "Congress shall make no law" taking away freedom of speech, which puts a limit on government.
gobierno limitado — el principio de que el gobierno solo puede hacer lo que el pueblo le permite en una constitución y debe respetar ciertos derechos.
Learn it: Principles of American constitutional democracyFull page
words chosen to stir up strong feelings or to pass judgment instead of just describing the facts.
Example: Calling a tax plan "a reckless scheme" instead of simply "a plan" is loaded language.
lenguaje cargado — palabras escogidas para provocar sentimientos fuertes o emitir un juicio en vez de solo describir los hechos.
trying to persuade lawmakers or government officials to support a group's position.
Example: Companies and groups spent over $4 billion lobbying the federal government in 2023.
cabildeo — tratar de convencer a los legisladores o a los funcionarios del gobierno de que apoyen la postura de un grupo.
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during the American Revolution, a Loyalist supported British rule and a Patriot supported independence.
Example: Benjamin Franklin was a Patriot, but his son William, the royal governor of New Jersey, stayed a Loyalist.
lealista (Loyalist) / patriota (Patriot) — durante la Revolución estadounidense, un lealista apoyaba el dominio británico y un patriota apoyaba la independencia.
a 1215 English charter that forced the king to obey the law and protected some rights of nobles.
Example: The Magna Carta's promise that no free man would be jailed except "by the law of the land" later inspired due process.
Carta Magna — una carta inglesa de 1215 que obligó al rey a obedecer la ley y protegió algunos derechos de los nobles.
Learn it: Principles of American constitutional democracyFull page
a majority is more than half of the votes; a plurality is the most votes, even if it is less than half.
Example: In 1992, Bill Clinton won the presidency with a plurality of about 43% of the popular vote.
mayoría absoluta / mayoría relativa — la mayoría absoluta es más de la mitad de los votos; la mayoría relativa es la mayor cantidad de votos, aunque sea menos de la mitad.
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the majority opinion explains the Supreme Court's ruling and sets the rule; a dissent is a justice's written disagreement and is not binding.
Example: In Plessy v. Ferguson (1896), Justice John Marshall Harlan wrote the lone dissent, saying "our Constitution is color-blind."
opinión mayoritaria / opinión disidente — la opinión mayoritaria explica la decisión de la Corte Suprema y fija la regla; una opinión disidente es el desacuerdo escrito de un juez y no es obligatoria.
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the ancient Chinese belief that Heaven gives a just ruler the right to rule and takes it away from an unjust one.
Example: When floods, famine or revolts struck, Chinese people often said a dynasty had lost the Mandate of Heaven.
Mandato del Cielo — la antigua creencia china de que el Cielo le da a un gobernante justo el derecho a gobernar y se lo quita a uno injusto.
federal spending that existing laws require each year unless Congress changes those laws.
Example: Social Security and Medicare are mandatory spending and make up a large share of the federal budget.
gasto obligatorio — el gasto federal que las leyes actuales exigen cada año, a menos que el Congreso cambie esas leyes.
the 1840s belief that the United States was meant by God to stretch across North America.
Example: Journalist John O'Sullivan coined the phrase in 1845, the same year the United States annexed Texas.
Destino Manifiesto — la creencia de la década de 1840 de que Dios quería que Estados Unidos se extendiera por toda América del Norte.
Learn it: European settlement and population of the AmericasFull page
finished products made from raw materials, usually in workshops or factories.
Example: Colonists sent furs and timber to England and bought back manufactured goods such as cloth and tools.
productos manufacturados — productos terminados hechos con materias primas, por lo general en talleres o fábricas.
Learn it: Economic drivers of exploration and colonialismFull page
the part of a map that shows how distance on the map compares with real distance on the ground.
Example: If the scale says 1 inch = 100 miles, two cities 3 inches apart on the map are about 300 miles apart.
escala del mapa — la parte de un mapa que muestra cómo se compara la distancia en el mapa con la distancia real.
the extra cost a business pays to produce one more unit of a good or service.
Example: If making 100 shirts costs $1,000 and making 101 costs $1,008, the marginal cost of the 101st shirt is $8.
costo marginal — el costo extra que paga una empresa por producir una unidad más de un bien o servicio.
an economic system in which individuals and businesses make most economic decisions, guided by prices and competition.
Example: In a market economy, a shop owner, not the government, decides what to sell and what to charge.
economía de mercado — un sistema económico en el que las personas y las empresas toman la mayoría de las decisiones económicas, guiadas por los precios y la competencia.
making large numbers of identical goods quickly and cheaply, usually with machines.
Example: Mass production cut the price of a Ford Model T from about $850 in 1908 to under $300 by the mid-1920s.
producción en masa — fabricar grandes cantidades de bienes idénticos de forma rápida y barata, por lo general con máquinas.
the early-1950s practice of accusing people of disloyalty or communist ties without real proof.
Example: In 1950, Senator Joseph McCarthy claimed he had a list of communists in the State Department but never proved it.
macartismo — la práctica, a principios de los años 50, de acusar a personas de deslealtad o de tener lazos comunistas sin pruebas reales.
the theory that a nation grows rich by exporting more than it imports and that colonies exist to benefit the home country.
Example: Under mercantilism, Britain made colonists sell raw materials to British merchants and buy British-made goods.
mercantilismo — la teoría de que una nación se hace rica al exportar más de lo que importa y de que las colonias existen para beneficiar al país de origen.
Learn it: Economic drivers of exploration and colonialismFull page
the forced voyage of enslaved Africans across the Atlantic Ocean to the Americas.
Example: About 12.5 million Africans were forced onto slave ships, and nearly 2 million died during the Middle Passage.
Travesía del Atlántico (Middle Passage) — el viaje forzado de los africanos esclavizados a través del océano Atlántico hacia las Américas.
Learn it: European settlement and population of the AmericasFull page
a trader who buys goods from one party and resells them to another for a higher price.
Example: Before 1500, Italian and Arab merchants were middlemen who resold Asian spices to Europeans at high prices.
intermediario — un comerciante que compra bienes a una parte y se los revende a otra a un precio más alto.
Learn it: Economic drivers of exploration and colonialismFull page
moving from one place to another to live, either within a country or to a different country.
Example: A family that moves from Ohio to Texas for a new job is taking part in migration.
migración — mudarse de un lugar a otro para vivir, ya sea dentro de un país o a otro país.
an army of ordinary citizens who train part time and serve in emergencies.
Example: Massachusetts militiamen called Minutemen fought British troops at Lexington and Concord in April 1775.
milicia — un ejército de ciudadanos comunes que entrenan a tiempo parcial y sirven en emergencias.
the lowest hourly pay that employers are allowed by law to pay most workers.
Example: The federal minimum wage, first set at 25 cents in 1938, has been $7.25 an hour since 2009.
salario mínimo — el pago por hora más bajo que la ley permite que los empleadores les paguen a la mayoría de los trabajadores.
a religious settlement set up to spread Christianity to Indigenous people.
Example: Spanish priests founded 21 missions in California between 1769 and 1823, including San Diego and Santa Barbara.
misión — un asentamiento religioso creado para difundir el cristianismo entre los pueblos indígenas.
Learn it: European settlement and population of the AmericasFull page
an economy that blends market decisions by people and businesses with some government rules and programs.
Example: The United States is a mixed economy: most businesses are private, but the government sets a minimum wage and runs Social Security.
economía mixta — una economía que combina las decisiones del mercado, tomadas por personas y empresas, con algunas reglas y programas del gobierno.
a government led by a king, queen or emperor, a position usually passed down within one family.
Example: Saudi Arabia is a monarchy in which the king holds most of the power.
monarquía — un gobierno encabezado por un rey, una reina o un emperador, un puesto que por lo general se hereda dentro de una familia.
Learn it: Types of modern and historical governmentsFull page
the Federal Reserve's actions to control the money supply and interest rates to keep prices stable and jobs growing.
Example: Cutting interest rates to near zero in March 2020 was monetary policy meant to support the economy.
política monetaria — las acciones de la Reserva Federal para controlar la oferta de dinero y las tasas de interés, y así mantener los precios estables y el empleo en aumento.
a market with many sellers offering products that are similar but not identical.
Example: Restaurants in a city compete this way: each has a different menu and style, but all sell meals.
competencia monopolística — un mercado con muchos vendedores que ofrecen productos parecidos pero no idénticos.
a market with only one seller of a product that has no close substitutes.
Example: In 1911, the Supreme Court broke up John D. Rockefeller's Standard Oil, which had once controlled about 90% of U.S. oil refining.
monopolio — un mercado con un solo vendedor de un producto que no tiene sustitutos cercanos.
a large group of people who share a culture, language, history and sense of identity.
Example: The Kurds see themselves as one nation, even though they live in several different countries.
nación — un grupo grande de personas que comparten cultura, idioma, historia y un sentido de identidad.
a country whose people mostly belong to one nation, sharing a culture and language.
Example: Japan is a nation-state: nearly all its people are ethnically Japanese and speak Japanese.
estado-nación — un país cuya gente pertenece en su mayoría a una sola nación, con una cultura y un idioma en común.
the total amount of money the federal government has borrowed over the years and still owes.
Example: The U.S. national debt passed $35 trillion in 2024.
deuda nacional — la cantidad total de dinero que el gobierno federal ha pedido prestado a lo largo de los años y que todavía debe.
strong pride in and loyalty to one's nation, sometimes with the belief that it is better than others.
Example: After the War of 1812, a wave of nationalism swept the country during the "Era of Good Feelings."
nacionalismo — un fuerte orgullo y lealtad hacia la propia nación, a veces con la creencia de que es mejor que las demás.
the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, a military alliance formed in 1949 whose members promise to defend one another.
Example: NATO began with 12 countries, including the United States and Canada, and had 32 members by 2024.
OTAN — la Organización del Tratado del Atlántico Norte, una alianza militar formada en 1949 cuyos miembros prometen defenderse entre sí.
the birth rate minus the death rate, showing how fast a population grows without counting migration.
Example: A country with 20 births and 8 deaths per 1,000 people has a natural increase of 12 per 1,000, or 1.2% a year.
crecimiento natural — la tasa de natalidad menos la tasa de mortalidad, que muestra qué tan rápido crece una población sin contar la migración.
a border that follows a natural feature such as a river, a lake or a mountain range.
Example: The Rio Grande forms about 1,250 miles of the border between Texas and Mexico.
frontera natural (física) — una frontera que sigue un rasgo natural, como un río, un lago o una cordillera.
something found in nature that people use, such as water, soil, trees or minerals.
Example: Pennsylvania's large coal deposits helped it become a center of steelmaking in the 1800s.
recurso natural — algo que se encuentra en la naturaleza y que la gente usa, como el agua, el suelo, los árboles o los minerales.
rights people have simply because they are human, which no government can rightfully take away.
Example: John Locke named life, liberty and property; the Declaration of Independence lists life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness.
derechos naturales — derechos que las personas tienen solo por ser humanas y que ningún gobierno puede quitar con justicia.
Learn it: Principles of American constitutional democracyFull page
the number of people who move into a place minus the number who move out.
Example: If 5,000 people move into a city in a year and 3,000 move out, net migration is +2,000.
migración neta — el número de personas que llegan a vivir a un lugar menos el número de personas que se van.
the amount of your paycheck left after taxes and other deductions are taken out.
Example: A worker with $800 in gross pay might take home $620 after taxes and insurance.
pago neto (salario neto) — la cantidad que queda de tu cheque de pago después de descontar los impuestos y otras deducciones.
not taking a side; describing each point of view fairly and without loaded words.
Example: "The city council voted 5–4 to raise bus fares" is neutral; "the greedy council hiked fares" is not.
neutral — que no toma partido; describe cada punto de vista con imparcialidad y sin palabras cargadas.
a nation's policy of not taking sides in other nations' wars.
Example: In 1793, President Washington declared U.S. neutrality in the war between Britain and France.
neutralidad — la política de una nación de no tomar partido en las guerras de otras naciones.
President Franklin D. Roosevelt's 1930s programs to give relief, recovery and reform during the Great Depression.
Example: The New Deal created the FDIC to protect bank deposits in 1933 and Social Security in 1935.
New Deal — los programas del presidente Franklin D. Roosevelt en los años 30 para dar alivio, recuperación y reforma durante la Gran Depresión.
the colonists' argument that only their own elected assemblies, not the British Parliament, had the right to tax them.
Example: Colonists used this slogan to protest the Stamp Act of 1765, since they had no members in Parliament.
"No a los impuestos sin representación" — el argumento de los colonos de que solo sus propias asambleas elegidas, y no el Parlamento británico, tenían derecho a cobrarles impuestos.
a nominal amount is in current dollars; a real amount is adjusted for inflation so you can compare years fairly.
Example: The federal minimum wage was $1.60 in 1968, which in real terms was worth more than today's $7.25.
nominal vs. real — una cantidad nominal está en dólares actuales; una cantidad real está ajustada por la inflación para comparar años de forma justa.
a natural resource that cannot be replaced within a human lifetime once it is used up.
Example: Oil, coal and natural gas took millions of years to form, so they are nonrenewable.
recurso no renovable — un recurso natural que no se puede reponer en el tiempo de una vida humana una vez que se agota.
peaceful protest that directly challenges unfair rules, such as boycotts, sit-ins and marches.
Example: About 250,000 people joined the peaceful 1963 March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom.
acción directa no violenta — protesta pacífica que desafía directamente las reglas injustas, como los boicots, las sentadas y las marchas.
a fertile spot in a desert where water from a spring or well lets plants grow.
Example: Desert traders in North Africa stopped at oases to rest and water their camels.
oasis — un lugar fértil en un desierto donde el agua de un manantial o un pozo permite que crezcan plantas.
rule by a small group of powerful people, such as rich families, army officers or party leaders.
Example: For centuries, the Republic of Venice was ruled by a council drawn from its wealthy merchant families.
oligarquía — gobierno de un grupo pequeño de personas poderosas, como familias ricas, oficiales del ejército o líderes de un partido.
Learn it: Types of modern and historical governmentsFull page
a market controlled by a few large sellers who watch and react to one another's prices.
Example: In the U.S., three companies (Verizon, AT&T and T-Mobile) serve most cell phone customers.
oligopolio — un mercado controlado por unos pocos vendedores grandes que vigilan los precios de los otros y reaccionan a ellos.
the value of the next-best choice you give up when you make a decision.
Example: If you study for the GED instead of working a $60 shift, the $60 is your opportunity cost.
costo de oportunidad — el valor de la siguiente mejor opción a la que renuncias cuando tomas una decisión.
Congress passing a bill into law over the President's veto, which takes a two-thirds vote in each chamber.
Example: In 1973, Congress overrode President Nixon's veto to pass the War Powers Resolution.
anulación del veto (override) — que el Congreso convierta un proyecto en ley a pesar del veto del presidente, lo que requiere dos tercios de los votos en cada cámara.
Learn it: Structure and design of the U.S. governmentFull page
a PAC gives limited money directly to candidates; a super PAC can raise and spend unlimited money but cannot coordinate with candidates.
Example: Super PACs became possible after the Supreme Court's Citizens United decision in 2010.
PAC / súper PAC — un PAC da cantidades limitadas de dinero directamente a los candidatos; un súper PAC puede recaudar y gastar sin límite, pero no puede coordinarse con ellos.
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a system in which voters elect lawmakers, and the lawmakers choose the top leader, usually called a prime minister.
Example: In Canada, the leader of the party with the most seats in the House of Commons usually becomes prime minister.
sistema parlamentario — un sistema en el que los votantes eligen a los legisladores, y estos escogen al líder principal, que normalmente se llama primer ministro.
Learn it: Types of modern and historical governmentsFull page
dividing one territory into two or more separate, independent states.
Example: In 1947, British India was partitioned into India and Pakistan, and millions of people fled across the new border.
partición — dividir un territorio en dos o más estados separados e independientes.
the simple difference between two percents, found by subtracting one from the other.
Example: If voter turnout rises from 50% to 60%, it went up 10 percentage points, which is a 20% increase.
puntos porcentuales — la diferencia simple entre dos porcentajes, que se obtiene restando uno del otro.
a market with many sellers offering identical products, so no single seller can control the price.
Example: Thousands of wheat farmers sell nearly identical wheat, so each must accept the market price.
competencia perfecta — un mercado con muchos vendedores que ofrecen productos idénticos, así que ningún vendedor puede controlar el precio.
the study of Earth's natural features, such as landforms, bodies of water, climate, soil and plants.
Example: Studying how the Rocky Mountains and the Mississippi River shape the U.S. landscape is physical geography.
geografía física — el estudio de los rasgos naturales de la Tierra, como el relieve, las masas de agua, el clima, el suelo y las plantas.
a large farm that grows one cash crop, historically worked by enslaved or forced laborers.
Example: In 1860, nearly four million people were enslaved in the South, many of them on cotton plantations.
plantación — una finca grande que cultiva un solo cultivo comercial, trabajada históricamente por personas esclavizadas o forzadas.
Learn it: Economic drivers of exploration and colonialismFull page
a political party's official statement of its positions; each separate position is called a plank.
Example: A party's platform might include planks on taxes, health care and immigration.
plataforma — la declaración oficial de las posturas de un partido político; cada postura por separado se llama "plank" (tablón).
Learn it: Political parties, campaigns and electionsFull page
a way a bill dies when the President does not sign it within ten days (not counting Sundays) and Congress has adjourned.
Example: Franklin D. Roosevelt used more pocket vetoes than any other President, over 260.
veto de bolsillo (pocket veto) — una forma en que muere un proyecto de ley cuando el presidente no lo firma en diez días (sin contar los domingos) y el Congreso ha levantado sus sesiones.
Learn it: Structure and design of the U.S. governmentFull page
a border that people agree on, often in a treaty, whether or not it follows a natural feature.
Example: The border between North and South Korea follows the line where fighting stopped in 1953.
frontera política — una frontera que acuerdan las personas, a menudo en un tratado, siga o no un rasgo natural.
an organized group of people with similar views who work together to win elections and shape government.
Example: The first U.S. parties formed in the 1790s: Hamilton's Federalists and Jefferson's Democratic-Republicans.
partido político — un grupo organizado de personas con ideas parecidas que trabajan juntas para ganar elecciones e influir en el gobierno.
a poll is a survey of opinions; a random sample is people picked by chance; the margin of error tells how far off the result may be.
Example: A poll of 1,000 random voters showing 52% support, ±3 points, means real support is likely between 49% and 55%.
encuesta, muestra aleatoria, margen de error — una encuesta es un sondeo de opiniones; una muestra aleatoria son personas escogidas al azar; el margen de error indica cuánto puede desviarse el resultado.
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a fee to vote, an unfair reading test and a rule excusing men whose grandfathers had voted, all used to keep Black citizens from voting.
Example: The Twenty-fourth Amendment (1964) banned poll taxes in federal elections.
impuesto al voto / prueba de alfabetización / cláusula del abuelo — una cuota para votar, una prueba de lectura injusta y una regla que eximía a los nietos de votantes, usadas para impedir que votaran los ciudadanos negros.
the principle that the people are the source of all government power.
Example: The Constitution begins with "We the People," showing that its power comes from the citizens.
soberanía popular — el principio de que el pueblo es la fuente de todo el poder del gobierno.
the average number of people living in each unit of area, such as a square mile.
Example: New Jersey has about 1,260 people per square mile, while Alaska has about 1.
densidad de población — el número promedio de personas que viven en cada unidad de área, como una milla cuadrada.
a bar graph that shows how many males and females are in each age group of a population.
Example: A pyramid with a wide base, like Niger's, shows many children; a narrow base, like Japan's, shows few births.
pirámide de población — una gráfica de barras que muestra cuántos hombres y mujeres hay en cada grupo de edad de una población.
the opening part of a document that explains its purpose, especially the first sentence of the U.S. Constitution.
Example: The Preamble begins "We the People of the United States" and lists goals such as to "establish Justice."
preámbulo — la parte inicial de un documento que explica su propósito, sobre todo la primera oración de la Constitución de EE. UU.
an earlier action or decision that serves as an example or rule for later ones.
Example: George Washington stepped down after two terms, a precedent that lasted until Franklin D. Roosevelt won a third term in 1940.
precedente — una acción o decisión anterior que sirve de ejemplo o de regla para otras posteriores.
a system in which voters elect the top leader separately from the lawmakers, and the leader does not depend on them to stay in office.
Example: The United States, Mexico and Brazil all use presidential systems.
sistema presidencial — un sistema en el que los votantes eligen al líder principal por separado de los legisladores, y el líder no depende de ellos para seguir en el cargo.
Learn it: Types of modern and historical governmentsFull page
a legal maximum price; if it is set below the equilibrium price, it causes a shortage.
Example: Rent control in New York City limits how much landlords can raise the rent on some apartments.
precio máximo — un precio máximo fijado por ley; si está por debajo del precio de equilibrio, causa un faltante.
a legal minimum price; if it is set above the equilibrium price, it can cause a surplus.
Example: A minimum wage of $15 an hour is a price floor: employers may not pay less for an hour of labor.
precio mínimo — un precio mínimo fijado por ley; si está por encima del precio de equilibrio, puede causar un excedente.
an election in which a party's voters choose the party's nominee, its official candidate, for the general election.
Example: In 2008, Barack Obama beat Hillary Clinton in the Democratic primaries to become the party's nominee.
elección primaria — una elección en la que los votantes de un partido escogen al candidato oficial del partido para la elección general.
Learn it: Political parties, campaigns and electionsFull page
a record made at the time of an event by someone who saw it or took part in it, such as a letter, diary, photo or speech.
Example: A letter a soldier sent home from Gettysburg in 1863 is a primary source about the Civil War.
fuente primaria — un registro hecho en la época de un suceso por alguien que lo vio o participó en él, como una carta, un diario, una foto o un discurso.
the original amount of money saved, invested or borrowed, not counting interest.
Example: If you borrow $5,000 for a car and repay $5,600, the principal is $5,000 and the interest is $600.
capital (principal) — la cantidad original de dinero que se ahorra, se invierte o se pide prestada, sin contar el interés.
a British order issued after the French and Indian War that banned colonists from settling west of the Appalachian Mountains.
Example: Many colonists ignored the Proclamation of 1763 and resented Britain for blocking their move west.
Proclamación de 1763 — una orden británica emitida después de la Guerra Franco-Indígena que prohibía a los colonos establecerse al oeste de los montes Apalaches.
the money left after subtracting total cost from total revenue; a negative profit is a loss.
Example: A food truck that takes in $9,000 in a month and spends $7,000 earns a $2,000 profit.
ganancia — el dinero que queda después de restar el costo total del ingreso total; una ganancia negativa es una pérdida.
a war in which rival powers support opposing sides without fighting each other directly.
Example: In Afghanistan in the 1980s, the U.S. armed local fighters against Soviet troops instead of sending its own soldiers.
guerra subsidiaria (proxy war) — una guerra en la que potencias rivales apoyan a bandos opuestos sin pelear directamente entre sí.
a business or place that serves the general public, such as a hotel, restaurant or theater.
Example: The Civil Rights Act of 1964 banned racial segregation in public accommodations.
establecimiento público (public accommodation) — un negocio o lugar que atiende al público en general, como un hotel, un restaurante o un teatro.
a government's plan or course of action for dealing with a public issue.
Example: A city law lowering the speed limit near schools to 20 miles per hour is a public policy.
política pública — el plan o la forma de actuar de un gobierno para tratar un asunto público.
the amount of goods and services that a sum of money can buy.
Example: When prices rise 10% but your pay stays the same, your purchasing power falls.
poder adquisitivo — la cantidad de bienes y servicios que se puede comprar con una suma de dinero.
a push factor is a reason that drives people to leave a place; a pull factor is a reason that draws them to a new place.
Example: The Irish potato famine pushed people out of Ireland, while factory jobs pulled them to American cities.
factor de expulsión / factor de atracción — un factor de expulsión es una razón que empuja a la gente a irse de un lugar; un factor de atracción es una razón que la atrae a un lugar nuevo.
Learn it: European settlement and population of the AmericasFull page
a fixed limit on how many immigrants may enter a country, often set for each nationality.
Example: The Immigration Act of 1924 set quotas that sharply cut immigration from Southern and Eastern Europe.
cuota (de inmigración) — un límite fijo a cuántos inmigrantes pueden entrar a un país, a menudo fijado para cada nacionalidad.
Learn it: European settlement and population of the AmericasFull page
a government limit on the amount of a good that can be imported from other countries.
Example: The United States limits how much foreign sugar can be imported each year, which keeps U.S. sugar prices higher.
cuota (de importación) — un límite del gobierno a la cantidad de un bien que se puede importar de otros países.
to formally approve something, such as a constitution, an amendment or a treaty.
Example: The Constitution took effect after New Hampshire became the ninth state to ratify it, in 1788.
ratificar — aprobar formalmente algo, como una constitución, una enmienda o un tratado.
limiting how much of a scarce good each person may buy, often during a war.
Example: During World War II, Americans used ration books to buy limited amounts of sugar, coffee, meat and gasoline.
racionamiento — limitar cuánto de un bien escaso puede comprar cada persona, a menudo durante una guerra.
natural products that have not yet been processed or made into finished goods.
Example: Cotton, timber and iron ore are raw materials; shirts, furniture and steel are made from them.
materias primas — productos naturales que todavía no se han procesado ni convertido en bienes terminados.
Learn it: Economic drivers of exploration and colonialismFull page
GDP adjusted for inflation, so it shows changes in the actual amount of goods and services produced.
Example: If GDP grows 5% in a year but prices rise 3%, real GDP grew only about 2%.
PIB real — el PIB ajustado por la inflación, así que muestra los cambios en la cantidad real de bienes y servicios producidos.
a significant, widespread drop in economic activity that lasts more than a few months.
Example: In the Great Recession of 2007–2009, U.S. unemployment rose to 10%.
recesión — una caída importante y extendida de la actividad económica que dura más de unos pocos meses.
the period from 1865 to 1877 when the nation rebuilt the South and brought the Confederate states back into the Union.
Example: During Reconstruction, the 13th, 14th and 15th Amendments ended slavery and gave Black men citizenship and the vote.
Reconstrucción — el período de 1865 a 1877 en que el país reconstruyó el Sur y reincorporó los estados confederados a la Unión.
a person who flees war, violence or persecution and crosses into another country for safety.
Example: Since 2022, millions of Ukrainians have fled to Poland and other countries as refugees from the war.
refugiado — una persona que huye de la guerra, la violencia o la persecución y cruza a otro país para estar a salvo.
a detailed rule written by a government agency to carry out a law passed by Congress or a state legislature.
Example: Under the Clean Air Act, the EPA writes regulations that limit pollution from cars and power plants.
reglamento — una regla detallada que escribe una agencia del gobierno para aplicar una ley aprobada por el Congreso o por una legislatura estatal.
a natural resource that nature replaces fairly quickly, so it will not run out if used carefully.
Example: Sunlight, wind and forests that are replanted are renewable resources.
recurso renovable — un recurso natural que la naturaleza repone con bastante rapidez, así que no se acaba si se usa con cuidado.
payments a defeated nation is made to pay for the damage caused by a war.
Example: The Treaty of Versailles (1919) forced Germany to pay huge reparations after World War I.
reparaciones — pagos que se obliga a hacer a una nación derrotada por los daños causados en una guerra.
a government in which citizens elect officials to make laws and decisions for them.
Example: Voters in each state elect members of Congress to represent them in Washington, D.C.
democracia representativa / república — un gobierno en el que los ciudadanos eligen funcionarios para que hagan las leyes y tomen decisiones por ellos.
Learn it: Types of modern and historical governmentsFull page
powers the Constitution does not give to the national government, so they are kept by the states or the people.
Example: Under the Tenth Amendment, states run public schools and set the rules for marriage licenses.
poderes reservados — poderes que la Constitución no le da al gobierno nacional, así que los conservan los estados o el pueblo.
Learn it: Structure and design of the U.S. governmentFull page
the people's right to change or overthrow a government that destroys their rights.
Example: The Declaration of Independence used this right to justify breaking away from Britain in 1776.
derecho a la revolución — el derecho del pueblo a cambiar o derrocar un gobierno que destruye sus derechos.
Learn it: Principles of American constitutional democracyFull page
an early civilization that grew along a river, which gave it water, rich farmland and a route for travel.
Example: Ancient Egypt grew along the Nile, whose yearly floods left rich soil for farming.
civilización de valle de río — una civilización antigua que creció junto a un río, que le daba agua, tierras fértiles y una ruta para viajar.
the principle that everyone, including government leaders, must obey the same laws.
Example: In 1974, the Supreme Court ordered President Nixon to hand over his secret tapes, showing that no one is above the law.
estado de derecho (rule of law) — el principio de que todos, incluidos los líderes del gobierno, deben obedecer las mismas leyes.
a country that is officially independent but is controlled by a more powerful country.
Example: After World War II, Poland, Hungary and East Germany were Soviet satellite states.
estado satélite — un país que es oficialmente independiente pero que está controlado por otro más poderoso.
the basic economic problem that resources are limited while people's wants are unlimited, so choices must be made.
Example: A city with $2 million to spend but $4 million in requests must choose which projects to fund.
escasez — el problema económico básico de que los recursos son limitados mientras que los deseos de la gente son ilimitados, así que hay que escoger.
a step-by-step way of testing ideas: ask a question, form a hypothesis, experiment, observe and draw a conclusion.
Example: In the 1600s, Francis Bacon urged thinkers to test ideas with experiments instead of trusting old books.
método científico — una forma de poner a prueba ideas paso a paso: hacer una pregunta, formar una hipótesis, experimentar, observar y sacar una conclusión.
the shift in the 1500s and 1600s to explaining nature through observation, experiments and math.
Example: Isaac Newton's laws of motion and gravity, published in 1687, were a high point of the Scientific Revolution.
Revolución Científica — el cambio, en los siglos XVI y XVII, hacia explicar la naturaleza por medio de la observación, los experimentos y las matemáticas.
a state or region formally withdrawing from a country to form its own government.
Example: South Carolina was the first state to secede from the Union, in December 1860.
secesión — el acto de un estado o una región que se separa formalmente de un país para formar su propio gobierno.
a work made later by someone who did not witness the event, using primary sources to explain or interpret it.
Example: A textbook chapter about the Civil War written in 2010 is a secondary source.
fuente secundaria — una obra hecha después por alguien que no presenció el suceso, que usa fuentes primarias para explicarlo o interpretarlo.
loyalty to the interests of your own region over those of the whole nation.
Example: In the 1850s, the North and the South argued bitterly over whether slavery could spread to western territories.
seccionalismo — lealtad a los intereses de tu propia región por encima de los de la nación entera.
the forced separation of people by race in schools, housing, transportation and other public places.
Example: Under segregation, many Southern towns had separate water fountains and waiting rooms marked "White" and "Colored."
segregación — la separación obligada de las personas por raza en escuelas, viviendas, transporte y otros lugares públicos.
the right of a people to decide their own government and political future.
Example: After World War I, President Woodrow Wilson called for self-determination for the peoples of Europe's old empires.
autodeterminación — el derecho de un pueblo a decidir su propio gobierno y su futuro político.
people making their own laws and choosing their own leaders instead of being ruled from far away.
Example: Virginia's House of Burgesses, which first met in 1619, was the first elected assembly in the English colonies.
autogobierno — que las personas hagan sus propias leyes y escojan a sus propios líderes en vez de ser gobernadas desde lejos.
being forced to give evidence against yourself, which the Fifth Amendment protects you from.
Example: A witness who refuses to answer because the answer could be used against them is "pleading the Fifth."
autoincriminación — ser obligado a dar pruebas en tu propia contra, algo de lo que te protege la Quinta Enmienda.
Learn it: Individual rights and civic responsibilitiesFull page
the smaller house of Congress, with two senators from each state who serve six-year terms.
Example: The Senate has 100 members and must approve treaties and the President's choices for federal judges.
Senado — la cámara más pequeña del Congreso, con dos senadores por cada estado que sirven períodos de seis años.
Learn it: Structure and design of the U.S. governmentFull page
the rule from Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) that allowed segregation as long as facilities were supposedly equal.
Example: In 1954, Brown v. Board of Education ruled that "separate but equal" public schools are unconstitutional.
"separados pero iguales" — la regla de Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) que permitía la segregación siempre que las instalaciones fueran supuestamente iguales.
the division of government power among three branches: legislative, executive and judicial.
Example: Congress makes the laws, the President carries them out, and the courts interpret them.
separación de poderes — la división del poder del gobierno entre tres ramas: legislativa, ejecutiva y judicial.
Learn it: Structure and design of the U.S. governmentFull page
the part of the economy made up of jobs that provide services instead of goods.
Example: Nurses, teachers, cashiers and software developers work in the service sector, which employs about 80% of U.S. workers.
sector de servicios — la parte de la economía formada por los empleos que dan servicios en vez de producir bienes.
the way people spread out across the land, including where they live and how close together.
Example: Early Midwest towns grew along rivers and, later, along railroad lines.
patrón de asentamiento — la forma en que la gente se distribuye en el territorio, incluido dónde vive y qué tan cerca unos de otros.
a situation in which buyers want more of a good than sellers offer, usually because the price is too low.
Example: Early in the 2020 pandemic, stores ran out of toilet paper because demand jumped faster than supply.
faltante (exceso de demanda) — una situación en la que los compradores quieren más de un bien de lo que ofrecen los vendedores, por lo general porque el precio está demasiado bajo.
interest paid only on the original amount, found with the formula I = P × r × t.
Example: $1,000 at 5% simple interest for 3 years earns $1,000 × 0.05 × 3 = $150.
interés simple — interés que se paga solo sobre la cantidad original; se calcula con la fórmula I = P × r × t.
a protest in which people sit in a segregated place and refuse to leave until they are served.
Example: In 1960, four Black college students held a sit-in at a whites-only Woolworth's lunch counter in Greensboro, North Carolina.
sentada (sit-in) — una protesta en la que la gente se sienta en un lugar segregado y se niega a irse hasta que la atiendan.
supreme power or authority, such as a nation's right to govern itself without outside control.
Example: Under the Articles of Confederation, each state kept its sovereignty, so Congress could only ask the states for money.
soberanía — el poder o la autoridad suprema, como el derecho de una nación a gobernarse sin control externo.
focusing on producing a few goods or doing a few tasks instead of many.
Example: Saudi Arabia specializes in producing oil and imports much of its food.
especialización — concentrarse en producir pocos bienes o hacer pocas tareas en vez de muchas.
a period of high inflation and high unemployment at the same time, with a stagnant, slow-growing economy.
Example: In 1980, the United States had inflation near 14% and unemployment above 7%.
estanflación — un período de inflación alta y desempleo alto al mismo tiempo, con una economía estancada que crece poco.
a person or group that is affected by a policy or decision and has an interest in its outcome.
Example: When a city plans a new highway, nearby homeowners, drivers and local businesses are all stakeholders.
parte interesada — una persona o un grupo afectado por una política o decisión y que tiene interés en su resultado.
an independent country with its own borders, people and government; in the United States, also one of the 50 self-governing parts.
Example: France is a state in the world sense, while Ohio is one of the 50 U.S. states.
estado — un país independiente con fronteras, población y gobierno propios; en Estados Unidos, también cada una de las 50 partes que se gobiernan a sí mismas.
the condition of people living without any government, as imagined by thinkers such as Hobbes and Locke.
Example: Hobbes called life in the state of nature "nasty, brutish, and short," while Locke said people still had natural rights.
estado de naturaleza — la condición de las personas que viven sin ningún gobierno, tal como la imaginaron pensadores como Hobbes y Locke.
Learn it: Principles of American constitutional democracyFull page
a nation of people who share an identity but do not have their own independent country.
Example: The Kurds, who live mainly in Turkey, Iraq, Iran and Syria, are often called the largest stateless nation.
nación sin estado — una nación de personas que comparten una identidad pero no tienen su propio país independiente.
extra government spending or tax cuts meant to boost a weak economy and create jobs.
Example: The 2009 Recovery Act spent about $800 billion on roads, schools and tax cuts during the Great Recession.
estímulo — gasto extra del gobierno o recortes de impuestos para impulsar una economía débil y crear empleos.
a sudden, steep fall in the prices of stocks across the market.
Example: On "Black Tuesday," October 29, 1929, stock prices collapsed, helping trigger the Great Depression.
desplome de la bolsa — una caída repentina y fuerte de los precios de las acciones en todo el mercado.
workers refusing as a group to work in order to pressure an employer to meet their demands.
Example: In the 1894 Pullman Strike, railroad workers walked off the job after their wages were cut.
huelga — cuando los trabajadores se niegan en grupo a trabajar para presionar a un empleador a aceptar sus demandas.
a home loan made to a borrower with weak credit, usually at a higher interest rate.
Example: When many subprime borrowers could not pay after 2006, home foreclosures helped cause the 2008 financial crisis.
hipoteca de alto riesgo (subprime) — un préstamo para vivienda que se le da a alguien con mal crédito, por lo general con una tasa de interés más alta.
the movement of people from cities to the communities, called suburbs, that surround them.
Example: After World War II, many families moved to new suburbs such as Levittown, New York, first built in 1947.
suburbanización — el traslado de la gente de las ciudades a las comunidades que las rodean, llamadas suburbios.
the right to vote in public elections, a right that more groups of Americans have won over time.
Example: Women's suffrage became national law when the Nineteenth Amendment was ratified in 1920.
sufragio — el derecho a votar en las elecciones públicas, un derecho que más grupos de estadounidenses han ganado con el tiempo.
a nation with enormous military and economic power that can influence events around the world.
Example: After 1945, the United States and the Soviet Union were the world's two superpowers.
superpotencia — una nación con un enorme poder militar y económico que puede influir en los sucesos de todo el mundo.
how much of a good or service sellers are willing and able to sell at each possible price.
Example: After a freeze destroys orange groves in Florida, the supply of oranges falls.
oferta — cuánto de un bien o servicio quieren y pueden vender los vendedores a cada precio posible.
the part of Article VI of the Constitution that makes the Constitution and federal laws "the supreme Law of the Land," above state laws.
Example: When a state law conflicts with a valid federal law, courts follow the federal law because of the Supremacy Clause.
Cláusula de Supremacía — la parte del Artículo VI de la Constitución que convierte a la Constitución y a las leyes federales en "la Ley suprema del País", por encima de las leyes estatales.
Learn it: Structure and design of the U.S. governmentFull page
the highest court in the United States, whose nine justices decide whether laws and government actions follow the Constitution.
Example: Supreme Court justices are chosen by the President, confirmed by the Senate and can serve for life.
Corte Suprema — el tribunal más alto de Estados Unidos, cuyos nueve jueces deciden si las leyes y las acciones del gobierno respetan la Constitución.
Learn it: Structure and design of the U.S. governmentFull page
a sudden, temporary increase in the number of troops sent to a war zone.
Example: In 2007, President George W. Bush sent about 20,000 more troops to Iraq in what was called "the surge."
aumento de tropas (surge) — un aumento repentino y temporal de la cantidad de soldados enviados a una zona de guerra.
a situation in which sellers offer more of a good than buyers want, usually because the price is too high.
Example: When a store still has too many winter coats in March, it cuts prices to sell off the surplus.
excedente (exceso de oferta) — una situación en la que los vendedores ofrecen más de un bien de lo que quieren los compradores, por lo general porque el precio está demasiado alto.
using resources in ways that meet today's needs without ruining them for future generations.
Example: A fishing limit that leaves enough fish to breed each year supports sustainability.
sostenibilidad — usar los recursos de manera que se cubran las necesidades de hoy sin arruinarlos para las generaciones futuras.
the Islamist group that ruled most of Afghanistan in 2001 and sheltered al Qaeda; it returned to power in 2021.
Example: U.S.-led forces drove the Taliban from power in late 2001 after it refused to hand over Osama bin Laden.
talibanes — el grupo islamista que gobernaba la mayor parte de Afganistán en 2001 y que protegía a al Qaeda; volvió al poder en 2021.
a tax on goods imported from other countries, which makes them more expensive.
Example: The Smoot-Hawley Tariff of 1930 raised taxes on thousands of imports, and world trade shrank during the Great Depression.
arancel — un impuesto a los bienes importados de otros países, que los hace más caros.
the use of violence or threats against civilians to frighten people and reach political goals.
Example: The 1995 Oklahoma City bombing, which killed 168 people, was an act of domestic terrorism.
terrorismo — el uso de la violencia o las amenazas contra civiles para asustar a la gente y lograr metas políticas.
a map that shows one topic or theme, such as rainfall, population or election results.
Example: A map that colors each state red or blue by how it voted for President is a thematic map.
mapa temático — un mapa que muestra un solo tema, como la lluvia, la población o los resultados de una elección.
a government run by religious leaders or by rulers who claim their power comes from God, with religious law as the law of the land.
Example: Iran has been a theocracy since 1979, with a supreme religious leader holding final power.
teocracia — un gobierno dirigido por líderes religiosos o por gobernantes que dicen que su poder viene de Dios, donde la ley religiosa es la ley del país.
Learn it: Types of modern and historical governmentsFull page
any political party other than the two major parties in a two-party system.
Example: In 1912, Theodore Roosevelt ran for President as the Progressive ("Bull Moose") Party candidate and came in second.
tercer partido — cualquier partido político que no sea uno de los dos partidos principales en un sistema bipartidista.
Learn it: Political parties, campaigns and electionsFull page
all the costs of production added together: fixed costs plus variable costs.
Example: A bakery with $2,000 in rent and $1,500 in flour and other supplies has a total cost of $3,500.
costo total — todos los costos de producción sumados: los costos fijos más los costos variables.
all the money a business takes in from sales, found by multiplying the price by the quantity sold.
Example: Selling 300 T-shirts at $15 each brings in total revenue of $4,500.
ingreso total — todo el dinero que recibe una empresa por sus ventas; se calcula multiplicando el precio por la cantidad vendida.
describes a government that tries to control every part of life, including jobs, news, schools, religion and even private beliefs.
Example: Under Joseph Stalin, the Soviet Union controlled the press, banned other parties and sent millions to labor camps.
totalitario — describe un gobierno que trata de controlar todos los aspectos de la vida, incluidos los trabajos, las noticias, las escuelas, la religión e incluso las creencias privadas.
Learn it: Types of modern and historical governmentsFull page
giving up some of one thing in order to get more of something else you want.
Example: A city that spends more on police may have less money left for parks; that is a trade-off.
disyuntiva (trade-off) — renunciar a parte de una cosa para obtener más de otra cosa que quieres.
the trade routes of the 1600s–1800s that linked Europe, Africa and the Americas in a three-sided pattern.
Example: Ships carried guns and cloth to Africa, enslaved people to the Americas, and sugar and tobacco back to Europe.
comercio triangular — las rutas comerciales de los siglos XVII al XIX que unían Europa, África y las Américas en un patrón de tres lados.
Learn it: European settlement and population of the AmericasFull page
the percent of eligible voters who actually vote in an election.
Example: About 66% of eligible voters cast ballots in the 2020 presidential election, the highest turnout in over a century.
participación electoral — el porcentaje de las personas con derecho a votar que de verdad votan en una elección.
Learn it: Political parties, campaigns and electionsFull page
a political system in which two major parties win almost all elections.
Example: In the U.S. two-party system, every President since 1853 has been either a Democrat or a Republican.
sistema bipartidista — un sistema político en el que dos partidos grandes ganan casi todas las elecciones.
Learn it: Political parties, campaigns and electionsFull page
describes rights that belong to every person and cannot be taken away or given up.
Example: The Declaration of Independence says all people have "unalienable Rights," including "Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness."
inalienable — describe derechos que le pertenecen a toda persona y que no se pueden quitar ni ceder.
Learn it: Principles of American constitutional democracyFull page
describes a law or government action that goes against the Constitution and can be struck down by the courts.
Example: In 1954, the Supreme Court ruled that laws requiring segregated public schools were unconstitutional.
inconstitucional — describe una ley o una acción del gobierno que va en contra de la Constitución y que los tribunales pueden anular.
Learn it: Structure and design of the U.S. governmentFull page
the percent of the labor force that has no job but is actively looking for one.
Example: The U.S. unemployment rate reached about 25% in 1933, during the Great Depression.
tasa de desempleo — el porcentaje de la fuerza laboral que no tiene trabajo pero lo busca activamente.
in the Civil War (1861–65), the Northern states that stayed loyal to the United States government, along with the border states.
Example: In 1861, the Union had about 22 million people, while the Confederacy had about 9 million, including enslaved people.
Unión — en la Guerra Civil (1861–65), los estados del Norte que siguieron leales al gobierno de Estados Unidos, junto con los estados fronterizos.
sinking enemy and neutral ships, including passenger ships, without warning.
Example: Germany's return to unrestricted submarine warfare in 1917 helped bring the United States into World War I.
guerra submarina sin restricciones — hundir barcos enemigos y neutrales, incluidos los de pasajeros, sin previo aviso.
the growth of cities as people move from the countryside to urban areas.
Example: The 1920 Census was the first to show more Americans living in cities and towns than in rural areas.
urbanización — el crecimiento de las ciudades a medida que la gente se muda del campo a las zonas urbanas.
a law passed about six weeks after 9/11 that expanded the government's power to watch suspects and share information.
Example: The Patriot Act made it easier for the FBI to get phone and business records in terrorism cases.
Ley PATRIOTA (USA PATRIOT Act) — una ley aprobada unas seis semanas después del 11 de septiembre que amplió el poder del gobierno para vigilar a sospechosos y compartir información.
a cost or bill that changes with how much a business produces or a household uses.
Example: Flour for each loaf is a bakery's variable cost; a family's grocery and electric bills are variable expenses.
costo variable / gasto variable — un costo o una cuenta que cambia según cuánto produce una empresa o cuánto usa un hogar.
the President's rejection of a bill passed by Congress, which keeps it from becoming law unless Congress overrides it.
Example: Grover Cleveland vetoed 584 bills, more than any other President except Franklin D. Roosevelt.
veto — el rechazo del presidente a un proyecto de ley aprobado por el Congreso, que impide que se convierta en ley a menos que el Congreso anule el veto.
Learn it: Structure and design of the U.S. governmentFull page
moving to a new place by choice, usually for jobs, family, safety or a better life.
Example: Many Americans move from the Northeast to Florida when they retire.
migración voluntaria — mudarse a un lugar nuevo por decisión propia, por lo general por trabajo, familia, seguridad o una vida mejor.
a vote in a parliament that can remove the prime minister and cabinet if most lawmakers no longer support them.
Example: In 1979, British Prime Minister James Callaghan lost a vote of no confidence, and an election followed.
voto de censura (vote of no confidence) — una votación en un parlamento que puede destituir al primer ministro y a su gabinete si la mayoría de los legisladores ya no los apoya.
Learn it: Types of modern and historical governmentsFull page
the payment a worker receives for labor, usually figured by the hour; it is the price of labor.
Example: A cashier who earns $15 an hour and works 30 hours gets $450 in wages for the week.
salario — el pago que recibe un trabajador por su trabajo, por lo general calculado por hora; es el precio del trabajo.
a loan that a citizen makes to the government to help pay for a war, repaid later with interest.
Example: In World War II, Americans paid $18.75 for a bond worth $25 after ten years.
bono de guerra — un préstamo que un ciudadano le hace al gobierno para ayudar a pagar una guerra, que se devuelve más tarde con interés.
the U.S.-led campaign, begun in 2001, against terrorist groups and the governments that shelter them.
Example: The war in Afghanistan, from 2001 to 2021, was the longest war in U.S. history and part of the war on terror.
guerra contra el terrorismo — la campaña dirigida por EE. UU., iniciada en 2001, contra los grupos terroristas y los gobiernos que los protegen.
a court order that allows police to search a place or arrest a person, based on probable cause that a crime happened.
Example: Under the Fourth Amendment, police usually need a warrant signed by a judge to search your home.
orden judicial — una orden de un tribunal que permite a la policía registrar un lugar o arrestar a una persona, basada en una causa probable de que se cometió un delito.
Learn it: Individual rights and civic responsibilitiesFull page
the military alliance formed in 1955 by the Soviet Union and its communist satellite states in Eastern Europe.
Example: The Warsaw Pact was created as a rival to NATO and broke up in 1991.
Pacto de Varsovia — la alianza militar que formaron en 1955 la Unión Soviética y sus estados satélites comunistas de Europa del Este.
chemical, biological or nuclear weapons that can kill large numbers of people at once.
Example: The 2003 invasion of Iraq was justified partly by claims that Iraq had WMD, but no active stockpiles were found.
armas de destrucción masiva (ADM, en inglés WMD) — armas químicas, biológicas o nucleares que pueden matar a gran cantidad de personas a la vez.
the rule in 48 states that the candidate who wins the most votes in a state gets all of its electoral votes; Maine and Nebraska split theirs.
Example: In 2020, Joe Biden won Arizona by about 10,000 votes and received all 11 of its electoral votes.
el ganador se lleva todo — la regla en 48 estados de que el candidato que gana más votos en un estado se lleva todos sus votos electorales; Maine y Nebraska los reparten.
Learn it: Political parties, campaigns and electionsFull page
income tax that an employer takes out of each paycheck and sends to the government, based on your Form W-4.
Example: Nationwide income tax withholding began in 1943, during World War II, to collect taxes faster.
retención de impuestos — el impuesto sobre la renta que el empleador descuenta de cada cheque de pago y envía al gobierno, según tu Formulario W-4.
the 1914–1918 war in which the Allies, including Britain, France, Russia and later the U.S., defeated the Central Powers led by Germany.
Example: The United States entered World War I in April 1917, and about 116,000 American soldiers died.
Primera Guerra Mundial — la guerra de 1914–1918 en la que los Aliados, entre ellos Gran Bretaña, Francia, Rusia y luego EE. UU., derrotaron a las Potencias Centrales, encabezadas por Alemania.
the 1939–1945 war in which the Allies, including the U.S., Britain and the Soviet Union, defeated Germany, Italy and Japan.
Example: The United States entered World War II after Japan attacked Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, on December 7, 1941.
Segunda Guerra Mundial — la guerra de 1939–1945 en la que los Aliados, entre ellos EE. UU., Gran Bretaña y la Unión Soviética, derrotaron a Alemania, Italia y Japón.
social contractcontrato socialthe idea that people agree to form a government and obey it, and in return the government protects their rights.
the idea that people agree to form a government and obey it, and in return the government protects their rights.
Example: John Locke argued that if a government breaks the social contract, the people may replace it.
contrato social — la idea de que las personas aceptan formar un gobierno y obedecerlo, y a cambio el gobierno protege sus derechos.
Learn it: Principles of American constitutional democracyFull page →