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Political Parties, Campaigns and Elections

Understand the two-party system, primaries, the Electoral College, voting, interest groups, campaign finance and polls, and read election sources and data.

Practice this skill 22 min Political parties, campaigns and elections Leer en español
Key idea

What you'll learn

This lesson explains how Americans choose their leaders. You will learn:

  • why the United States has a two-party system, and what third parties do;
  • how parties pick their candidates through primaries, caucuses and conventions;
  • how the Electoral College works, including the math behind 270;
  • who can vote, and what affects turnout (how many people vote);
  • what interest groups, PACs and super PACs do, and the basics of campaign finance (money in elections);
  • how to read public opinion polls and their margin of error.

How it shows up on the GED: You will see:

  • primary sources (Article II, the 12th Amendment, Washington's Farewell Address),
  • election tables and charts (turnout by age, electoral vote results),
  • short articles about campaigns.

Questions ask you to read data correctly and do simple election math. You may need to judge whether a poll or chart supports a claim. You may also need to tell fact from opinion in campaign materials.

Words to know

Key terms

  • political party — a group that picks candidates and tries to win control of government (the Democratic and Republican parties).
  • two-party system — a system in which two major parties win almost all elections.
  • third party — any party other than the two major ones (the Libertarian or Green Party).
  • platform — a party's official list of positions. Each position is a plank, like boards that make up a floor.
  • primary election — an election in which a party's voters choose its nominee (official candidate).
  • closed / open primary — closed: only registered party members vote. Open: any registered voter may choose a party's ballot.
  • caucus — a meeting where party members talk and choose candidates.
  • delegate — a person who speaks for voters at a party's national convention.
  • general election — the final election between party nominees and others (held in November).
  • elector / Electoral College — the people who formally elect the President. There are 538 in all.
  • winner-take-all — the candidate with the most votes in a state gets all its electoral votes.
  • majority / plurality — majority: more than half the votes. Plurality: the most votes, even if under half.
  • turnout — the percent of eligible people who actually vote.
  • interest group — a group that tries to shape policy but does not run candidates (a farmers' association).
  • lobbying — trying to persuade lawmakers.
  • PAC / super PAC — committees that raise and spend money in elections (limits explained below).
  • poll, random sample, margin of error — a poll is a survey of opinion. A random sample is people chosen by chance. The margin of error is how far off a poll result could be.

All Social Studies words in the glossary

1. Parties and the two-party system

In plain words: Two big parties win almost every U.S. election. The way votes are counted helps explain why.

Think of an office vote for the holiday party spot. If only the top choice wins and second place gets nothing, people stop splitting their votes. They join one of two big camps. U.S. elections work much the same way.

How parties began. The Constitution never mentions political parties. George Washington even warned against the "spirit of party" in his 1796 Farewell Address. Yet parties formed almost right away: the Federalists and the Democratic-Republicans. Since the 1850s, the two major parties have been the Democratic and Republican parties.

Why only two? Most U.S. elections are winner-take-all in single-member districts. That means:

  • Each district elects one person.
  • The candidate with the most votes wins.
  • Second place gets nothing.
Bar chart of an example single-member district. Candidate A has 45 percent and wins the seat. Candidate B has 40 percent and Candidate C has 15 percent; both get nothing. The most votes wins, even a plurality, and second place gets nothing, so like-minded voters join one of two big coalitions instead of splitting their votes.Winner-Take-All: Why Two Big PartiesOne district, one seat (example results)Candidate A45%WINS THE SEATCandidate B40%gets nothingCandidate C15%gets nothingMost votes wins (a plurality is enough); second place gets nothing.So like-minded voters join one of two big coalitions instead of splitting their votes.

So voters who think alike join one of two big coalitions (teams of groups) instead of splitting their votes.

What third parties do. They rarely win. But they matter in two ways:

  • They can raise issues that the major parties later take up.
  • They can change a close race by pulling votes away from a major candidate. This is sometimes called the spoiler effect.

Examples:

  • Theodore Roosevelt's Progressive ("Bull Moose") Party won 88 electoral votes in 1912.
  • Ross Perot won about 19% of the popular vote in 1992 but no electoral votes.

What parties do:

  • find and nominate candidates,
  • write platforms,
  • raise money,
  • register voters and get them to the polls,
  • organize government. For example, the majority party in the House chooses the Speaker.

2. From candidate to nominee to President

In plain words: First each party picks one candidate. Then voters choose between the parties' candidates.

Think of a cooking contest. First each team holds a tryout to pick its best cook. Then the winners face off in the final round. A presidential race works like that.

A presidential election takes more than a year. Here is the usual order:

StepWhenWhat happens
1. AnnounceA year or more beforeCandidates declare and begin raising money
2. Primaries and caucusesJanuary–June of election yearEach party's voters in each state choose delegates
3. National conventionsSummerDelegates formally nominate the party's candidate; the platform is adopted
4. General electionTuesday after the first Monday in NovemberVoters in each state choose electors
5. Electors voteMid-DecemberElectors meet in their states and cast votes
6. Count and inaugurationJan. 6 / Jan. 20Congress counts electoral votes; the new President takes office
Timeline of a presidential election. 1, candidates announce a year or more before. 2, primaries and caucuses, January to June. 3, national conventions in summer. Steps 1 to 3 are how each party picks one nominee. 4, general election in early November. 5, electors vote in mid-December. 6, Congress counts electoral votes on January 6 and the President is inaugurated January 20. Steps 4 to 6 are how voters and electors choose the President.From Candidate to President1Announcea year+ before2Primaries,caucusesJan–June3Nationalconventionssummer4Generalelectionearly Nov.5Electorsvotemid-Dec.6Count andinaugurationJan. 6 / Jan. 20Each party picks ONE nomineeVoters and electors choose the President

Two types of primaries:

  • Closed primary: only voters registered with that party may vote.
  • Open primary: any registered voter may choose one party's ballot.

Example: An independent voter (not in any party) cannot vote in a closed Republican or Democratic primary. But that voter can vote in an open one.

Comparison of closed and open primaries. Closed primary: a registered Democrat may vote only on the Democratic ballot, a registered Republican only on the Republican ballot, and an independent with no party may vote in neither. Open primary: any registered voter, including an independent, may choose either party's ballot, but only one.Closed vs. Open PrimariesCLOSED primaryDemocratic ballotRepublican ballotRegistered DemocratRegistered RepublicanIndependent (no party)✗ neitherOPEN primaryDemocratic ballotRepublican ballotRegistered DemocratRegistered RepublicanIndependent (no party)Only party members vote in that party's primary.Any registered voter picks ONE party's ballot.

Races for Congress, state and local offices also use primaries and a November general election. But the winner is decided by the direct popular vote. There is no electoral college for these races.

3. The Electoral College

In plain words: Americans do not elect the President directly. They vote for electors, and the electors choose the President.

Think of a tournament scored by sets, not total points. A tennis player can win more total points and still lose the match. The Electoral College counts states, a bit like sets.

Counting the electors. Article II gives each state electors equal to its senators + representatives. The 23rd Amendment (1961) gives Washington, D.C., 3. That makes 435 + 100 + 3 = 538 electors.

The magic number. To win, a candidate needs a majority. Half of 538 is 269. So the magic number is 270.

Bar of all 538 electors to scale: 435 for House seats, 100 for Senate seats, and 3 for Washington, D.C., under the 23rd Amendment. A line at 270 marks the number needed to win. Half of 538 is 269, a tie; a majority is 270. If no one reaches 270, the House chooses, with one vote per state delegation, under the 12th Amendment.Where 538 Comes From435 House100 SenateD.C. 3 (23rd Amend.)270 to win0538435 + 100 + 3 = 538 electors. Half = 269 (a tie). Majority = 270.No one reaches 270 → the House chooses, one vote per state delegation (12th Amendment).

Key rules:

  • 48 states and D.C. use winner-take-all. Maine and Nebraska give some electoral votes by congressional district.
  • If no one reaches 270, the 12th Amendment sends the choice to the House of Representatives. There, each state's group of members casts one vote.
  • Electoral votes are won state by state. So a candidate can win the national popular vote and still lose the Electoral College. This happened in 1876, 1888, 2000 and 2016.
Schematic tile map of the United States with one square per state plus D.C., each labelled with its electoral votes for the 2024 and 2028 elections. Total 538. CA 54; TX 40; FL 30; NY 28; IL 19; PA 19; OH 17; GA 16; NC 16; MI 15; NJ 14; VA 13; WA 12; AZ 11; IN 11; MA 11; TN 11; CO 10; MD 10; MN 10; MO 10; WI 10; AL 9; SC 9; OR 8; KY 8; LA 8; CT 7; OK 7; IA 6; MS 6; AR 6; KS 6; NV 6; UT 6; NM 5; NE 5; ID 4; WV 4; HI 4; NH 4; ME 4; RI 4; MT 4; DE 3; SD 3; ND 3; AK 3; VT 3; WY 3; DC 3. Maine and Nebraska have dashed red borders because they split electoral votes by congressional district; the other 48 states and D.C. are winner-take-all.Electoral Votes by State (Schematic Map)AK3ME4WI10VT3NH4WA12ID4MT4ND3MN10IL19MI15NY28MA11OR8NV6WY3SD3IA6IN11OH17PA19NJ14CT7RI4CA54UT6CO10NE5MO10KY8WV4VA13MD10DE3AZ11NM5KS6AR6TN11NC16SC9DC3OK7LA8MS6AL9GA16HI4TX40FL30Number = electoral votes (senators + representatives; D.C. gets 3). Total = 538.Darker = more votes. Red dashed border: Maine and Nebraska split votes by district; all others winner-take-all.Tiles are a schematic, not true shapes or sizes. Allocation used for the 2024 and 2028 elections.

Arguments people make:

Supporters sayCritics say
Candidates must pay attention to many states, including smaller onesIt can override the national popular vote
It reflects the country's federal structure (power shared with states)Campaigns focus on a few closely divided "swing states"

The GED will not ask you which side is right. It may ask you to name each side's reasons.

4. Voting and turnout

In plain words: Over time, more people won the right to vote. But not everyone who can vote does.

Who can vote. Voting rights grew over time:

ChangeYearWhat it did
15th Amendment1870No denial by race
19th Amendment1920No denial by sex
24th Amendment1964No poll taxes in federal elections
Voting Rights Act1965Stronger protection for voters
26th Amendment1971Voting age set at 18

To vote in federal elections, you must be a U.S. citizen and at least 18. States run elections. They set rules such as registration deadlines, early voting and mail voting. But they must stay within limits set by the Constitution and federal law.

Turnout is the share of eligible people who vote. Two patterns:

  • Turnout is usually higher in presidential election years than in midterm years (elections halfway through a President's term).
  • Older citizens have usually voted at higher rates than younger ones.

When you read a turnout chart, remember it shows percents of each group, not numbers of people. For example, 70% of a small group can be fewer people than 50% of a large group.

5. Interest groups, money and polls

In plain words: Interest groups try to shape laws. Money flows into elections under set rules. Polls guess what the public thinks.

Interest groups. Think of a neighborhood group that asks the city for a new stop sign. It does not run anyone for mayor. It just pushes for what it wants. Interest groups work the same way, on a bigger scale.

  • Examples: business groups, labor unions, retirees' groups, environmental groups and gun-rights groups.
  • Tools: lobbying, backing candidates, running ads and filing lawsuits.
  • Key difference: they do not nominate candidates. That is what separates them from parties.

Campaign finance basics:

WhoWhat they may do
Individuals and PACsGive money directly to candidates, but federal law caps the amounts
Super PACsRaise and spend unlimited amounts on their own ads. They may not give money directly to campaigns or work with them. Court decisions in 2010, including Citizens United v. FEC, made them possible
Federal Election Commission (FEC)Enforces federal campaign finance law and collects reports on who gave and spent money
Diagram of campaign money. Individuals and PACs may give money directly to a candidate's campaign, but the amounts are capped by federal law. Super PACs may spend unlimited amounts on their own independent ads but may not give directly to campaigns or coordinate with them. The Federal Election Commission enforces the law and collects reports on all of this.Campaign Finance: Who Can Give WhatIndividualsPACsCandidate's campaigncappedcappedSuper PACsTheir own ads(independent spending)unlimited✗ no direct gifts,no coordinationFederal ElectionCommission (FEC)enforces law, collects reportswatches all of this

People disagree here too. Some see political spending as protected free speech. Others worry that big donors gain too much influence.

Polls. Think of tasting one spoonful to judge a whole pot of soup. A poll asks a random sample of people and uses their answers to estimate everyone's views. It reports a margin of error.

  • A result of 52% ± 3 means true support is probably between 49% and 55%.
  • If two candidates' ranges overlap, the race is too close to call.
  • Larger random samples give smaller margins of error.
  • Self-selected polls (online clicks, rally crowds) are not reliable.
Worked example

Worked example 1 — Electoral vote math

Source: Candidate Lee has won 251 electoral votes. Only one state's result is still being counted, and it has 19 electoral votes. The national total is 538.

Question: If Lee wins that state, will Lee have enough electoral votes to become President?

Think-aloud:

  1. Majority of 538: 538 \div 2 = 269; more than half → 270.
  2. Lee's total if she wins: 251 + 19 = 270.
  3. 270 is exactly the number needed.
Bar of 538 electoral votes. Candidate Lee has 251 already won, shown in blue. The last state adds 19, shown in green, bringing Lee to 270, exactly the line needed to win. 269 is only half, a possible tie. 251 plus 19 equals 270, a majority of 538.Worked Example 1: Does Lee Reach 270?251 already won+19270 needed269 = half (tie)538251 + 19 = 270: exactly a majority of 538, so Lee wins.

Answer: Yes — 270 is a majority. Trap: some test takers think 269 is enough. 269 is only half, which could be a tie.

Worked example

Worked example 2 — Primary rules

Source: "State X holds closed primaries. Only voters registered as members of a party may vote in that party's primary."

Question: Maya is registered as an independent (no party). What can she do in State X's primary election?

A. Vote in either party's primary B. Vote in both primaries C. She cannot vote in either party's primary D. Vote in the primary of the party that won the last election

Think-aloud:

  1. Key rule: only registered party members may vote in that party's primary.
  2. Maya belongs to no party.
  3. So she cannot vote in either one. (She can still vote in the November general election.)

Answer: C. If the source had said open primary, the answer would have been A.

Worked example

Worked example 3 — Reading a poll

Source: A random poll of 1,000 likely voters: Candidate Ortiz 51%, Candidate Hale 46%, margin of error ±3 points.

Question: Which conclusion is best supported?

A. Ortiz will win by exactly 5 points. B. Ortiz leads, but the race could still be close because the ranges overlap. C. Hale has no chance of winning. D. The poll is unreliable because it surveyed only 1,000 people.

Think-aloud:

  1. Ortiz range: 48%–54%. Hale range: 43%–49%.
  2. The ranges overlap at 48%–49%, so we cannot be certain Ortiz is ahead, though the poll suggests she is.
  3. Eliminate: A and C are too certain; D is wrong — a random sample of 1,000 is standard.
Number line from 40 to 60 percent showing poll ranges with a margin of error of plus or minus 3 points. Ortiz: 51 percent, range 48 to 54. Hale: 46 percent, range 43 to 49. The ranges overlap from 48 to 49 percent, so Ortiz leads but the race could still be close.Worked Example 3: Poll Results With Margin of Error40%42%44%46%48%50%52%54%56%58%60%overlap 48–49%Ortiz51% (range 48–54%)Hale46% (range 43–49%)Margin of error ±3: the ranges overlap, so Ortiz leads but the race could still be close.

Answer: B.

Worked example

Worked example 4 — Evaluating campaign material

Source: A mailer from the fictional Citizens for Lower Utility Bills, an interest group: "Proposition 4 will raise the average home electric bill by $8 a month, according to the state utility commission. Don't let politicians drain your wallet — vote NO!"

Question: Which part of the mailer is a factual claim that could be checked?

A. "Don't let politicians drain your wallet" B. "vote NO!" C. The $8-a-month estimate from the state utility commission D. The group's name

Think-aloud:

  1. A fact can be verified — we could look up the commission's estimate.
  2. "Drain your wallet" is loaded language meant to stir emotion (opinion). "Vote NO" is a call to action.
  3. The name tells us the group's goal, which helps us spot its point of view, but it is not a claim about Proposition 4.

Answer: C. Strategy: always ask who paid for a message and what they want you to do.

Common mistake

Common mistakes

  • Thinking the popular vote decides the presidency. Wrong: "Most votes nationwide wins." Right: the winner needs 270 electoral votes, won state by state.
  • Using half instead of a majority. Wrong: "269 of 538 wins." Right: a majority is more than half, so 270.
  • Mixing up parties and interest groups. Wrong: "The retirees' association nominated a candidate." Right: interest groups support or oppose candidates but do not nominate them.
  • Mixing up PACs and super PACs. Wrong: "Super PACs give unlimited money to campaigns." Right: super PACs spend unlimited money independently; they cannot give directly to campaigns.
  • Ignoring the margin of error. Wrong: "A 2-point lead with ±4 means she's winning." Right: that is a statistical tie.
  • Reading percents as numbers. Wrong: "65+ turnout was 67%, so more seniors voted than anyone." Right: without group sizes, you can compare rates only.
Test strategy

GED strategy for election questions

  1. Check the chart title, axes and units first. Is it percent or number? Which years?
  2. For Electoral College math, add only the electoral votes of states each candidate won. Write the totals down on your erasable note board.
  3. Majority = more than half. Divide by 2, then go to the next whole number.
  4. For polls, build each candidate's range (result ± margin) and check for overlap.
  5. Identify the source's purpose. Campaign ads and interest-group flyers are persuasive; look for loaded words and separate checkable facts from opinions.
  6. Stay neutral. The GED never rewards a political opinion. Choose the answer the evidence supports, not the one you agree with.
  7. Watch absolute words such as certain, always and never.

Check yourself

Political parties, campaigns and elections
How the Constitution Chooses a President

The Constitution does not let voters choose the President directly. Instead, it creates electors, a group now called the Electoral College.

(1) Article II, Section 1 (1787): "Each State shall appoint, in such Manner as the Legislature thereof may direct, a Number of Electors, equal to the whole Number of Senators and Representatives to which the State may be entitled in the Congress: but no Senator or Representative, or Person holding an Office of Trust or Profit under the United States, shall be appointed an Elector."

(2) Twelfth Amendment (1804): "The person having the greatest number of votes for President, shall be the President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of Electors appointed; and if no person have such majority, then from the persons having the highest numbers not exceeding three on the list of those voted for as President, the House of Representatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, the President. But in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by states, the representation from each state having one vote; …"

According to paragraph 1, how is the number of electors for each state decided?

Answer choices
Hint

Look for the word "equal" in Article II.

Check yourself

Political parties, campaigns and elections
How the Constitution Chooses a President

The Constitution does not let voters choose the President directly. Instead, it creates electors, a group now called the Electoral College.

(1) Article II, Section 1 (1787): "Each State shall appoint, in such Manner as the Legislature thereof may direct, a Number of Electors, equal to the whole Number of Senators and Representatives to which the State may be entitled in the Congress: but no Senator or Representative, or Person holding an Office of Trust or Profit under the United States, shall be appointed an Elector."

(2) Twelfth Amendment (1804): "The person having the greatest number of votes for President, shall be the President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of Electors appointed; and if no person have such majority, then from the persons having the highest numbers not exceeding three on the list of those voted for as President, the House of Representatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, the President. But in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by states, the representation from each state having one vote; …"

According to the Twelfth Amendment, what happens if no candidate for President wins a majority of the electoral votes?

Answer choices
Hint

Find the words "if no person have such majority." Who chooses next, and how are the votes counted?

Summary

  • Winner-take-all elections encourage a two-party system. Third parties raise issues and can affect close races.
  • Parties pick candidates through primaries, caucuses and conventions. The general election is in November.
  • There are 538 electors, and 270 wins. Most states are winner-take-all. If no one has a majority, the House decides, with one vote per state.
  • Interest groups lobby but do not nominate candidates.
  • PACs give limited amounts directly. Super PACs spend unlimited amounts on their own.
  • Read polls with their margin of error. Read turnout charts as percents, not counts.
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