Political parties, campaigns and elections

The Constitution does not let voters choose the President directly. Instead, it creates electors, a group now called the Electoral College.

(1) Article II, Section 1 (1787): "Each State shall appoint, in such Manner as the Legislature thereof may direct, a Number of Electors, equal to the whole Number of Senators and Representatives to which the State may be entitled in the Congress: but no Senator or Representative, or Person holding an Office of Trust or Profit under the United States, shall be appointed an Elector."

(2) Twelfth Amendment (1804): "The person having the greatest number of votes for President, shall be the President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of Electors appointed; and if no person have such majority, then from the persons having the highest numbers not exceeding three on the list of those voted for as President, the House of Representatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, the President. But in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by states, the representation from each state having one vote; …"

The Constitution does not let voters choose the President directly. Instead, it creates electors, a group now called the Electoral College.

(1) Article II, Section 1 (1787): "Each State shall appoint, in such Manner as the Legislature thereof may direct, a Number of Electors, equal to the whole Number of Senators and Representatives to which the State may be entitled in the Congress: but no Senator or Representative, or Person holding an Office of Trust or Profit under the United States, shall be appointed an Elector."

(2) Twelfth Amendment (1804): "The person having the greatest number of votes for President, shall be the President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of Electors appointed; and if no person have such majority, then from the persons having the highest numbers not exceeding three on the list of those voted for as President, the House of Representatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, the President. But in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by states, the representation from each state having one vote; …"

(1) The fictional country of Alder chooses its president much like the United States does. Each of its five states has a set number of electoral votes. The candidate who wins the most popular votes in a state wins all of that state's electoral votes (winner-take-all). To become president, a candidate must win a majority — more than half — of the 52 electoral votes.

(2) The table shows the results of Alder's most recent election.

The Constitution sets the basic rules for federal elections and offices. Some rules come from the original document of 1787; others were added by amendments.

(1) Article I, Section 2 (House of Representatives): "No Person shall be a Representative who shall not have attained to the Age of twenty five Years, and been seven Years a Citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an Inhabitant of that State in which he shall be chosen."

(2) Article I, Section 4 (running elections): "The Times, Places and Manner of holding Elections for Senators and Representatives, shall be prescribed in each State by the Legislature thereof; but the Congress may at any time by Law make or alter such Regulations, except as to the Places of chusing Senators." ("Chusing" is an old spelling of "choosing.")

(3) Article II, Section 1 (President): "No Person except a natural born Citizen, or a Citizen of the United States, at the time of the Adoption of this Constitution, shall be eligible to the Office of President; neither shall any Person be eligible to that Office who shall not have attained to the Age of thirty five Years, and been fourteen Years a Resident within the United States."

(4) Seventeenth Amendment (1913): "The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two Senators from each State, elected by the people thereof, for six years; and each Senator shall have one vote."

(5) Twentieth Amendment, Section 1 (1933): "The terms of the President and Vice President shall end at noon on the 20th day of January, and the terms of Senators and Representatives at noon on the 3d day of January, of the years in which such terms would have ended if this article had not been ratified; and the terms of their successors shall then begin."

(6) Twenty-second Amendment, Section 1 (1951): "No person shall be elected to the office of the President more than twice, and no person who has held the office of President, or acted as President, for more than two years of a term to which some other person was elected President shall be elected to the office of the President more than once."

(1) The fictional Republic of Varnell elects its president much as the United States does. Each of its six provinces has a set number of electoral votes. The candidate who wins the most popular votes in a province wins all of that province's electoral votes. To become president, a candidate must win a majority — more than half — of all the electoral votes. Only two candidates, Ortega and Lind, ran in the last election.

(2) The table shows the official results.

In September 1796, as he prepared to leave the presidency, George Washington published a long letter to the American people. At the time, two rival groups — the Federalists and the Democratic-Republicans — were forming into the nation's first political parties.

(1) "I have already intimated to you the danger of parties in the State, with particular reference to the founding of them on geographical discriminations. Let me now take a more comprehensive view, and warn you in the most solemn manner against the baneful effects of the spirit of party generally."

(2) "The alternate domination of one faction over another, sharpened by the spirit of revenge, natural to party dissension, which in different ages and countries has perpetrated the most horrid enormities, is itself a frightful despotism."

(3) "It serves always to distract the public councils and enfeeble the public administration. It agitates the community with ill-founded jealousies and false alarms, kindles the animosity of one part against another, foments occasionally riot and insurrection."

In September 1796, as he prepared to leave the presidency, George Washington published a long letter to the American people. At the time, two rival groups — the Federalists and the Democratic-Republicans — were forming into the nation's first political parties.

(1) "I have already intimated to you the danger of parties in the State, with particular reference to the founding of them on geographical discriminations. Let me now take a more comprehensive view, and warn you in the most solemn manner against the baneful effects of the spirit of party generally."

(2) "The alternate domination of one faction over another, sharpened by the spirit of revenge, natural to party dissension, which in different ages and countries has perpetrated the most horrid enormities, is itself a frightful despotism."

(3) "It serves always to distract the public councils and enfeeble the public administration. It agitates the community with ill-founded jealousies and false alarms, kindles the animosity of one part against another, foments occasionally riot and insurrection."

(1) Candidates and voters are not the only players in an election. Political parties recruit and nominate candidates and try to win control of the government. Interest groups work to influence government policy, but they do not run their own candidates. Examples include groups that represent retirees, businesses, labor unions, environmental causes and gun owners.

(2) Interest groups use several tools. They lobby, meaning they meet with lawmakers to argue for or against bills. They endorse candidates, run advertisements, and sometimes file lawsuits.

(3) Many interest groups form political action committees (PACs). A PAC collects money from members and can give it directly to candidates, but federal law limits how much it may give to each candidate. After court decisions in 2010, a newer kind of committee, the super PAC, may raise and spend unlimited amounts on its own ads for or against candidates. A super PAC may not give money directly to a candidate's campaign or coordinate its spending with the campaign. The Federal Election Commission requires PACs and super PACs to report their donors.

(4) Americans disagree about money in politics. Some argue that spending money to spread a political message is a form of free speech protected by the First Amendment. Others argue that large donors gain too much influence over elected officials.

(5) Campaigns, reporters and voters also follow public opinion polls. A good poll questions a random sample — people chosen by chance so that everyone in the group has a fair chance of being picked. Because a poll asks only some people, every result has a margin of error. A poll that randomly selects more people generally has a smaller margin of error. Polls in which people choose themselves, such as clicking an online poll or answering at a campaign event, are not random and may not represent all voters.

(6) Poll box: A fictional poll of 600 randomly selected likely voters for governor found: Ruiz 48%, Park 45%, undecided 7%. Margin of error: plus or minus 4 percentage points.

An original explainer written for this app.

(1) Why does the United States have two major political parties, when many democracies have five or more? Many political scientists point to the way Americans elect officials. In most U.S. elections, only one person wins each office, and the candidate with the most votes wins, even without a majority. This is often called a winner-take-all or first-past-the-post system.

(2) Under this system, a party that finishes second or third everywhere wins nothing. Voters who like a small party's candidate may worry about "wasting" their vote, so they choose the major-party candidate who is closest to their views instead. Over time, this pushes politics toward two large parties. Many countries that use proportional representation — in which parties win seats in proportion to their share of the vote — have several strong parties.

(3) Third parties still matter. They can raise issues that the major parties ignore. When a third party's idea becomes popular, one of the major parties often adopts it, and the third party may fade. Third parties can also affect close elections by drawing votes away from a major-party candidate.

(4) Finally, the two major parties are broad coalitions. Each includes people with a range of views, and each changes its positions over time as new voters and new issues appear.

(1) Voters in the fictional state of Tarrin will decide Measure 7, which would let the state borrow money to build a high-speed rail line. Four polls about the measure were taken in September.

(2) Because a poll asks only a sample of people, every result from a random sample has a margin of error. For example, a result of 50% with a margin of error of ±3 points means the true level of support is probably between 47% and 53%. If the ranges for "Yes" and "No" overlap, the poll cannot tell which side is truly ahead. A margin of error can be calculated only for a random sample, in which everyone in the group has a fair chance of being picked.

(3) The table summarizes the four polls.

(4) In recent statewide elections, about 60% of Tarrin's adults voted. Likely voters are people who say they plan to vote and who have voted in recent elections.

Two campaign mailers from a race for county commissioner in the fictional Pine County. Both candidates and all figures are fictional.

Mailer 1 — Elect Rosa Bell

(1) Since 2020, Pine County's spending on road repair has fallen from $14 million to $11 million a year.

(2) Our roads are a disgrace, and the current commissioners simply do not care.

(3) Rosa Bell has served six years on the county planning board. She will fight for every family in Pine County.

Mailer 2 — Re-elect Commissioner Tom Akers

(4) Since Tom Akers took office, Pine County's unemployment rate has fallen from 6.1% in 2020 to 3.9% in 2024.

(5) Property taxes have skyrocketed under career politicians. Only Tom Akers will stand up for hardworking taxpayers.

(6) Tom Akers voted to fund three new county parks. Rosa Bell's reckless plans would wreck our budget.

An original explainer written for this app.

(1) Why does the United States have two major political parties, when many democracies have five or more? Many political scientists point to the way Americans elect officials. In most U.S. elections, only one person wins each office, and the candidate with the most votes wins, even without a majority. This is often called a winner-take-all or first-past-the-post system.

(2) Under this system, a party that finishes second or third everywhere wins nothing. Voters who like a small party's candidate may worry about "wasting" their vote, so they choose the major-party candidate who is closest to their views instead. Over time, this pushes politics toward two large parties. Many countries that use proportional representation — in which parties win seats in proportion to their share of the vote — have several strong parties.

(3) Third parties still matter. They can raise issues that the major parties ignore. When a third party's idea becomes popular, one of the major parties often adopts it, and the third party may fade. Third parties can also affect close elections by drawing votes away from a major-party candidate.

(4) Finally, the two major parties are broad coalitions. Each includes people with a range of views, and each changes its positions over time as new voters and new issues appear.

(1) Voters in the fictional state of Tarrin will decide Measure 7, which would let the state borrow money to build a high-speed rail line. Four polls about the measure were taken in September.

(2) Because a poll asks only a sample of people, every result from a random sample has a margin of error. For example, a result of 50% with a margin of error of ±3 points means the true level of support is probably between 47% and 53%. If the ranges for "Yes" and "No" overlap, the poll cannot tell which side is truly ahead. A margin of error can be calculated only for a random sample, in which everyone in the group has a fair chance of being picked.

(3) The table summarizes the four polls.

(4) In recent statewide elections, about 60% of Tarrin's adults voted. Likely voters are people who say they plan to vote and who have voted in recent elections.

(1) Every four years, Americans elect a President. From the first announcement to the oath of office, the process takes well over a year.

(2) Announcing and organizing. Candidates announce that they are running, hire campaign staff and raise money. Federal law requires campaigns to report their contributions to the Federal Election Commission.

(3) Primaries and caucuses. From about January to June of the election year, each state holds a primary or a caucus to help choose each party's nominee. In a primary, voters cast secret ballots, as in a regular election. In a caucus, party members gather in meetings and choose a candidate after discussion. In a closed primary, only voters registered with a party may vote in that party's primary; in an open primary, any registered voter may choose which party's primary to vote in. The results decide how many delegates each candidate wins.

(4) National conventions. In the summer, each major party holds a national convention. The delegates officially nominate the party's candidate for President. The nominee announces a running mate for Vice President, and the party adopts a platform — a written statement of its goals and positions.

(5) General election campaign. In the fall, the nominees travel, advertise and often meet in televised debates. Election Day is set by federal law as the Tuesday after the first Monday in November.

(6) The Electoral College. In mid-December, each state's electors meet in their own state and cast their votes for President and Vice President.

(7) Counting and inauguration. In early January (usually January 6), Congress meets in a joint session to count the electoral votes. At noon on January 20, as the Twentieth Amendment requires, the new President's term begins and the President takes the oath of office.

(1) Candidates and voters are not the only players in an election. Political parties recruit and nominate candidates and try to win control of the government. Interest groups work to influence government policy, but they do not run their own candidates. Examples include groups that represent retirees, businesses, labor unions, environmental causes and gun owners.

(2) Interest groups use several tools. They lobby, meaning they meet with lawmakers to argue for or against bills. They endorse candidates, run advertisements, and sometimes file lawsuits.

(3) Many interest groups form political action committees (PACs). A PAC collects money from members and can give it directly to candidates, but federal law limits how much it may give to each candidate. After court decisions in 2010, a newer kind of committee, the super PAC, may raise and spend unlimited amounts on its own ads for or against candidates. A super PAC may not give money directly to a candidate's campaign or coordinate its spending with the campaign. The Federal Election Commission requires PACs and super PACs to report their donors.

(4) Americans disagree about money in politics. Some argue that spending money to spread a political message is a form of free speech protected by the First Amendment. Others argue that large donors gain too much influence over elected officials.

(5) Campaigns, reporters and voters also follow public opinion polls. A good poll questions a random sample — people chosen by chance so that everyone in the group has a fair chance of being picked. Because a poll asks only some people, every result has a margin of error. A poll that randomly selects more people generally has a smaller margin of error. Polls in which people choose themselves, such as clicking an online poll or answering at a campaign event, are not random and may not represent all voters.

(6) Poll box: A fictional poll of 600 randomly selected likely voters for governor found: Ruiz 48%, Park 45%, undecided 7%. Margin of error: plus or minus 4 percentage points.

(1) In the fictional city of Millbrook, two candidates are running for mayor: Grace Whitaker of the Harbor Party and Leon Castillo of the Unity Party (both parties are fictional). Many organizations are trying to influence the race. Millbrook's election laws follow the same model as federal law.

(2) Political parties recruit and nominate candidates and help them campaign, with the goal of winning control of government. In March, the Harbor Party held a city convention and nominated Whitaker. The Unity Party is recruiting candidates for three open city council seats.

(3) Interest groups try to influence public policy, but they do not nominate their own candidates. The Millbrook Small Business Association met with city council members to argue against a proposed parking fee. The Millbrook Tenants' Union collected signatures in support of a rent-assistance program.

(4) Political action committees (PACs) collect money from members and give it directly to candidates' campaigns, but only up to a legal limit for each candidate. The Tenants' Union PAC gave the maximum allowed amount to Castillo's campaign.

(5) Super PACs may raise and spend unlimited amounts, but only on their own independent messages, such as ads. A super PAC may not give money directly to a campaign, and it may not coordinate its spending with a campaign. A super PAC called Millbrook Forward is running TV ads that support Whitaker.

(6) Every PAC and super PAC must report the names of its donors to the city election office.

An original explainer written for this app.

(1) Why does the United States have two major political parties, when many democracies have five or more? Many political scientists point to the way Americans elect officials. In most U.S. elections, only one person wins each office, and the candidate with the most votes wins, even without a majority. This is often called a winner-take-all or first-past-the-post system.

(2) Under this system, a party that finishes second or third everywhere wins nothing. Voters who like a small party's candidate may worry about "wasting" their vote, so they choose the major-party candidate who is closest to their views instead. Over time, this pushes politics toward two large parties. Many countries that use proportional representation — in which parties win seats in proportion to their share of the vote — have several strong parties.

(3) Third parties still matter. They can raise issues that the major parties ignore. When a third party's idea becomes popular, one of the major parties often adopts it, and the third party may fade. Third parties can also affect close elections by drawing votes away from a major-party candidate.

(4) Finally, the two major parties are broad coalitions. Each includes people with a range of views, and each changes its positions over time as new voters and new issues appear.

(1) The fictional country of Alder chooses its president much like the United States does. Each of its five states has a set number of electoral votes. The candidate who wins the most popular votes in a state wins all of that state's electoral votes (winner-take-all). To become president, a candidate must win a majority — more than half — of the 52 electoral votes.

(2) The table shows the results of Alder's most recent election.

An original explainer written for this app.

(1) Why does the United States have two major political parties, when many democracies have five or more? Many political scientists point to the way Americans elect officials. In most U.S. elections, only one person wins each office, and the candidate with the most votes wins, even without a majority. This is often called a winner-take-all or first-past-the-post system.

(2) Under this system, a party that finishes second or third everywhere wins nothing. Voters who like a small party's candidate may worry about "wasting" their vote, so they choose the major-party candidate who is closest to their views instead. Over time, this pushes politics toward two large parties. Many countries that use proportional representation — in which parties win seats in proportion to their share of the vote — have several strong parties.

(3) Third parties still matter. They can raise issues that the major parties ignore. When a third party's idea becomes popular, one of the major parties often adopts it, and the third party may fade. Third parties can also affect close elections by drawing votes away from a major-party candidate.

(4) Finally, the two major parties are broad coalitions. Each includes people with a range of views, and each changes its positions over time as new voters and new issues appear.

(1) The fictional Republic of Varnell elects its president much as the United States does. Each of its six provinces has a set number of electoral votes. The candidate who wins the most popular votes in a province wins all of that province's electoral votes. To become president, a candidate must win a majority — more than half — of all the electoral votes. Only two candidates, Ortega and Lind, ran in the last election.

(2) The table shows the official results.

Two campaign mailers from a race for county commissioner in the fictional Pine County. Both candidates and all figures are fictional.

Mailer 1 — Elect Rosa Bell

(1) Since 2020, Pine County's spending on road repair has fallen from $14 million to $11 million a year.

(2) Our roads are a disgrace, and the current commissioners simply do not care.

(3) Rosa Bell has served six years on the county planning board. She will fight for every family in Pine County.

Mailer 2 — Re-elect Commissioner Tom Akers

(4) Since Tom Akers took office, Pine County's unemployment rate has fallen from 6.1% in 2020 to 3.9% in 2024.

(5) Property taxes have skyrocketed under career politicians. Only Tom Akers will stand up for hardworking taxpayers.

(6) Tom Akers voted to fund three new county parks. Rosa Bell's reckless plans would wreck our budget.