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The Struggle for Civil Rights

Learn the abolition and women's suffrage movements, court cases from Plessy to Brown, the civil rights laws of 1964 and 1965, and other equality movements.

Practice this skill 35 min Civil rights Leer en español
Key idea

What you'll learn

The struggle for civil rights runs through all of American history. It began with abolitionists in the 1830s. Women demanded the vote in 1848. In the 1950s and 1960s, the fight moved to courtrooms, buses, and streets.

In this lesson you will learn the major movements, leaders, court cases, and laws. You will also see how each one built on the ones before it.

How this shows up on the GED:

  • Excerpts from public documents: the Declaration of Sentiments, Supreme Court opinions (Plessy, Brown), the Civil Rights Act, the Voting Rights Act, and presidential speeches.
  • Summaries of modern speeches and letters (such as Dr. King's), told in plain words.
  • Charts of voter registration or other data.
  • Scenarios that ask which law or case applies.
Words to know

Key terms

  • civil rights — the right to equal treatment under the law (voting, equal access to schools and public places).
  • abolition — the movement to end slavery.
  • suffrage — the right to vote (women's suffrage).
  • segregation — forced separation of people by race (separate schools, separate water fountains).
  • "separate but equal" — the Plessy rule. It allowed segregation if facilities were supposedly equal.
  • integration / desegregation — ending segregation (integrating Little Rock's Central High School).
  • equal protection clause — the 14th Amendment's promise that states treat people equally under the law.
  • nonviolent direct action — peaceful protest, such as boycotts, sit-ins, and marches.
  • boycott — refusing to use a service or buy goods as a protest (the Montgomery Bus Boycott).
  • sit-in — sitting in a segregated place and refusing to leave until served.
  • civil disobedience — openly and peacefully breaking an unjust law and accepting the penalty.
  • public accommodation — a business that serves the public (hotel, restaurant, theater).
  • percentage points — the difference between two percents. Going from 20% to 50% is a rise of 30 points.

All Social Studies words in the glossary

Abolition and women's suffrage (1830s–1920)

In plain words: Two early movements fought for equal rights. One worked to end slavery. The other worked to win women the vote.

Abolitionists worked to end slavery:

  • William Lloyd Garrison published a newspaper, The Liberator, starting in 1831.
  • Frederick Douglass escaped slavery. He became a famous speaker and writer. In 1852 he asked what the Fourth of July meant to an enslaved person.
  • Harriet Tubman led enslaved people to freedom on the Underground Railroad.
  • Sojourner Truth spoke for both abolition and women's rights.

Slavery ended with the 13th Amendment (1865).

Women's suffrage. Many early women's rights leaders were also abolitionists. Here is how the fight unfolded:

YearEvent
1848At the Seneca Falls Convention, Elizabeth Cady Stanton's Declaration of Sentiments said "all men and women are created equal." It demanded the vote.
1872Susan B. Anthony was arrested for voting.
LaterAlice Paul's activists picketed (protested outside) the White House. Western states such as Wyoming gave women the vote first.
1920The 19th Amendment banned denying the vote "on account of sex."
Timeline drawn to scale from 1830 to 1925. Above the line, abolition: 1831 Garrison starts The Liberator; 1852 Frederick Douglass's Fourth of July speech; 1865 the 13th Amendment ends slavery. Below the line, women's suffrage: 1848 Seneca Falls Convention; 1869 Wyoming Territory lets women vote; 1872 Susan B. Anthony arrested for voting; 1917 Alice Paul's activists picket the White House; 1920 the 19th Amendment. A bracket shows 72 years from Seneca Falls (1848) to the 19th Amendment (1920). Abolition and women's suffrage, 1830–1920 (to scale) 1830 1840 1850 1860 1870 1880 1890 1900 1910 1920 Abolition Women's suffrage 1831 The Liberator 1852 Douglass’s July 4th speech 1865 13th Amendment ends slavery 1848 Seneca Falls 1869 Wyoming Territory 1872 Anthony arrested 1917 White House pickets 1920 19th Amendment 1920 − 1848 = 72 years of struggle for the vote

Jim Crow and the legal challenge (1896–1957)

In plain words: The Supreme Court first allowed segregation. Lawyers then spent decades fighting it in court, and they finally won in 1954.

After Reconstruction, Southern states passed Jim Crow laws that forced segregation. In Plessy v. Ferguson (1896), the Supreme Court approved these laws under the rule of "separate but equal." One justice, John Marshall Harlan, disagreed. He wrote, "Our Constitution is color-blind." In reality, Black schools and facilities got far less money. "Equal" was not equal — like two teams told they have the same field, when one gets a lawn and the other gets a parking lot.

People responded in different ways:

  • Booker T. Washington urged Black Americans to build economic strength through self-help.
  • W.E.B. Du Bois demanded full equality. He helped found the NAACP (1909).
  • Millions of Black Southerners moved north in the Great Migration.
Comparison chart of three responses to Jim Crow. Booker T. Washington: build economic strength through self-help. W.E.B. Du Bois: demand full equality now; helped found the NAACP in 1909. Great Migration: millions of Black Southerners moved north. Three responses to Jim Crow Booker T. Washington build economic strength through self-help W.E.B. Du Bois demand full equality; helped found the NAACP (1909) Great Migration millions of Black Southerners moved north

NAACP lawyers, led by Thurgood Marshall, attacked segregation in court. In Brown v. Board of Education (1954), every justice agreed. The Court ruled that "separate educational facilities are inherently unequal." Inherently means by their very nature. This overturned Plessy for public schools.

Resistance was fierce. In 1957, President Eisenhower sent federal troops to protect nine Black students. They were integrating Central High School in Little Rock, Arkansas. Marshall later became the first Black Supreme Court justice (1967).

Timeline drawn to scale from 1890 to 1970: 1896 Plessy v. Ferguson allows separate but equal; 1909 NAACP founded; 1954 Brown v. Board of Education rules segregated schools inherently unequal; 1957 federal troops protect nine Black students at Central High School in Little Rock; 1967 Thurgood Marshall becomes the first Black Supreme Court justice. A bracket shows 58 years from Plessy (1896) to Brown (1954). From Plessy to Brown: the legal fight (to scale) 1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1896 Plessy: “separate but equal” allowed 1909 NAACP founded 1954 Brown: segregated schools “inherently unequal” 1957 Little Rock Central High 1967 Marshall on Supreme Court 1954 − 1896 = 58 years

The modern civil rights movement (1955–1968)

In plain words: In the 1950s and 1960s, ordinary people used peaceful protest to push the nation to change its laws.

YearEventResult
1955–56Montgomery Bus Boycott, sparked by Rosa Parks's arrest; led by Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.Court ruling ended bus segregation
1960Greensboro sit-ins by college studentsLunch counters integrated; spread across the South
1961Freedom Rides on interstate busesEnforcement of desegregated travel
1963Birmingham campaign; King's Letter from Birmingham JailNational outrage at attacks on children
1963March on Washington; King's "I Have a Dream" speechPressure for a civil rights law
1964Civil Rights Act; 24th Amendment bans poll taxes in federal electionsEnded legal segregation in public places; banned job discrimination
1965Selma to Montgomery marchesVoting Rights Act
Cause and effect chart linking protests to results: Montgomery Bus Boycott (1955–56) led to court ruling ends bus segregation; Greensboro sit-ins (1960) led to lunch counters integrated; Birmingham + March on Washington (1963) led to Civil Rights Act (1964): public places, jobs; Selma to Montgomery marches (1965) led to Voting Rights Act (1965): voting. Peaceful protest → change in the law Protest (cause) Result (effect) Montgomery Bus Boycott (1955–56) court ruling ends bus segregation Greensboro sit-ins (1960) lunch counters integrated Birmingham + March on Washington (1963) Civil Rights Act (1964): public places, jobs Selma to Montgomery marches (1965) Voting Rights Act (1965): voting

King's ideas (in our own words, not quotes):

  • In the "I Have a Dream" speech, King called on the nation to live up to the promise of equality in its founding documents. He hoped his children would be judged by their character, not their skin color.
  • In his Birmingham letter, he defended nonviolent civil disobedience against unjust laws.

Not all activists agreed on methods.

  • Malcolm X criticized strategies that put integration first. He stressed Black pride and self-defense.
  • Later, the Black Power movement stressed political and economic self-determination — Black communities controlling their own future.

King was assassinated in 1968.

Comparison chart of methods in the civil rights era. Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.: nonviolent direct action, civil disobedience against unjust laws, integration. Malcolm X: criticized integration-first strategies, stressed Black pride and self-defense. Black Power (later): political and economic self-determination. All three shared the goal of freedom and equality for Black Americans. Same goal, different methods Dr. King nonviolent direct action; civil disobedience; integration Malcolm X questioned integration first; Black pride; self-defense Black Power political and economic self- determination Goal: freedom and equality

Other movements for equal rights

In plain words: Other groups saw the Black freedom struggle and used the same tools — protests, boycotts, lawsuits, and new laws.

GroupKey steps
WomenEqual Pay Act (1963). Title VII of the Civil Rights Act banned sex discrimination in hiring. Title IX (1972) banned sex discrimination in federally funded education, including school sports.
Latino AmericansMendez v. Westminster (1947) ended segregation of Mexican American children in some California schools. Hernandez v. Texas (1954) applied equal protection to Mexican Americans. César Chávez and Dolores Huerta organized farmworkers (United Farm Workers). They led a national grape boycott starting in 1965.
American IndiansThe American Indian Movement (1968) protested broken treaties and demanded self-determination.
People with disabilitiesThe Americans with Disabilities Act (1990) banned discrimination against people with disabilities in jobs and public places.
Hub diagram. Center: tools from the Black freedom struggle (protests, boycotts, lawsuits, new laws). Four groups used them: women (Equal Pay Act 1963, Title VII 1964, Title IX 1972); Latino Americans (Mendez v. Westminster 1947, Hernandez v. Texas 1954, farmworker grape boycott from 1965); American Indians (American Indian Movement 1968); people with disabilities (Americans with Disabilities Act 1990). Other movements used the same tools Tools from the Black freedom struggle protests, boycotts, lawsuits, new laws Women Equal Pay Act (1963) Title VII (1964) Title IX (1972) Latino Americans Mendez (1947) Hernandez (1954) grape boycott (1965–) American Indians American Indian Movement (1968) Disability rights Americans with Disabilities Act (1990)

Everyday example: A ramp at a store entrance, or a girls' high school soccer team, connects back to laws like the ADA and Title IX.

Timeline of civil rights milestones

Timeline of civil rights, not to scale: 1848 Seneca Falls Convention; 1865 Thirteenth Amendment ends slavery; 1896 Plessy v. Ferguson; 1909 NAACP founded; 1920 Nineteenth Amendment; 1954 Brown v. Board of Education; 1955 Montgomery Bus Boycott begins; 1963 March on Washington; 1964 Civil Rights Act; 1965 Voting Rights Act; 1990 Americans with Disabilities Act. Milestones in the Struggle for Civil Rights (not to scale) 1848 Seneca Falls Convention 1865 13th Amendment ends slavery 1896 Plessy v. Ferguson 1909 NAACP founded 1920 19th Amendment 1954 Brown v. Board 1955 Montgomery Bus Boycott 1963 March on Washington 1964 Civil Rights Act 1965 Voting Rights Act 1990 Americans with Disabilities Act

Notice that 58 years separate Plessy (1896) from Brown (1954).

Worked example

Worked example 1 — Applying an amendment

"The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of sex." — 19th Amendment, 1920

Question: Which situation would this amendment make illegal? (A) A state bars women from voting in elections for governor. (B) A city refuses to hire women as firefighters. (C) A school denies a girl a place on a sports team. (D) A state requires voters to be 21.

Think-aloud:

  1. The amendment covers one thing, voting, and one reason, sex.
  2. (A) denies voting because of sex. ✔
  3. Check the others:
    • (B) and (C) are discrimination, but in jobs and schools. Later laws (Title VII, Title IX) cover those, not this amendment.
    • (D) is about age, not sex.
Decision chart for the 19th Amendment, which covers voting denied because of sex. (A) state bars women from voting: about voting? yes; because of sex? yes; covered by the 19th Amendment? YES. (B) city won't hire women firefighters: about voting? no – jobs; because of sex? yes; covered by the 19th Amendment? no (Title VII). (C) girl denied a sports team spot: about voting? no – school; because of sex? yes; covered by the 19th Amendment? no (Title IX). (D) voters must be 21: about voting? yes; because of sex? no – age; covered by the 19th Amendment? no. 19th Amendment test: voting AND because of sex? Situation Voting? Because of sex? Covered? (A) state bars women from voting yes yes YES (B) city won't hire women firefighters no – jobs yes no (Title VII) (C) girl denied a sports team spot no – school yes no (Title IX) (D) voters must be 21 yes no – age no

Answer: A.

Worked example

Worked example 2 — A president's framing

"We are confronted primarily with a moral issue. It is as old as the scriptures and is as clear as the American Constitution." — President John F. Kennedy, address on civil rights, June 11, 1963

Question: Kennedy's main purpose in these sentences is to (A) explain the details of a new tax law (B) present civil rights as a question of right and wrong rooted in the nation's founding law (C) argue that civil rights should be left to the states (D) describe the history of the Bible

Think-aloud:

  1. Find the key words:
    • moral issue = right vs. wrong;
    • scriptures = religious tradition;
    • Constitution = the nation's basic law.
  2. He presents civil rights as basic right and wrong and as a principle of the Constitution. So, he suggests, Americans should support action.
  3. Check the others: (A) and (C) are not in the text. (D) takes "scriptures" too literally.

Answer: B.

Worked example

Worked example 3 — Reading a summary of a modern speech

Summary (our own words): At the 1963 March on Washington, Dr. King compared the Constitution and the Declaration of Independence to a promise made to all Americans. He said the nation had failed to keep that promise to its Black citizens, and he urged listeners to keep protesting peacefully until it was fulfilled.

Question: Which statement is an opinion expressed in the speech, rather than a historical fact about it? (A) The speech was given in 1963. (B) The nation had failed to keep its promise of equality to Black Americans. (C) The speech was given at the March on Washington. (D) King spoke about the Declaration of Independence.

Think-aloud:

  1. A fact can be checked: a date, a place, or a topic mentioned. Choices (A), (C), and (D) are facts.
  2. An opinion is a judgment or an argument. (B) is King's judgment — an argument he makes. So it is the opinion, even though many people agree with it.

Answer: B.

Worked example

Worked example 4 — Purpose of a presidential speech

"There is no Negro problem. There is no Southern problem. There is no Northern problem. There is only an American problem." — President Lyndon B. Johnson, address to Congress, March 15, 1965

Question: Johnson repeats "There is no … problem" mainly to (A) deny that voting discrimination existed (B) argue that the denial of voting rights was a responsibility of the whole nation (C) blame the North for segregation (D) say Congress should not act

Think-aloud:

  1. Know the setting. Johnson spoke a week after police attacked marchers at Selma. He was asking Congress to pass a voting rights law.
  2. He rejects labels that make the issue belong to one group or one region. Then he says it is "an American problem." It belongs to everyone — like a leak in an apartment building that every tenant must help fix.
  3. Check the others:
    • (A) misreads the repetition. He did not say there was no problem.
    • (C) and (D) go against the speech.

Answer: B.

Common mistake

Common traps

  • Mixing up Plessy and Brown. Plessy (1896) allowed segregation. Brown (1954) ruled school segregation unconstitutional.
  • Thinking Brown ended all segregation at once. It covered public schools. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 banned segregation in public accommodations. Integration took years.
  • Confusing the 1964 and 1965 laws. 1964 = public places and jobs. 1965 = voting.
  • Confusing percentage points with percent change. 6.7% → 59.8% is +53.1 points, not +53.1%.
  • Mistaking a summary for a quotation. A summary of a modern speech gives the ideas, not the speaker's exact words.
  • Choosing an idea from only one source on "both sources" questions. The answer must fit both.
Bar chart drawn to scale: Black voter registration in Mississippi, 6.7% before the Voting Rights Act and 59.8% after (1967). The rise is 59.8 minus 6.7 = 53.1 percentage points. As a percent change it is 53.1 divided by 6.7 times 100, about 793%. So the rise is 53.1 points, not 53.1%. Percentage points vs. percent change 0% 20% 40% 60% 6.7% 59.8% before after (1967) Percentage points (subtract): 59.8 − 6.7 = +53.1 points Percent change (divide by old): 53.1 ÷ 6.7 × 100 ≈ 793% Mississippi, Black voter registration
Test strategy

GED strategy for civil rights questions

  1. Match the law or case to the issue:
IssueLaw or case
voting15th, 19th, 24th Amendments; Voting Rights Act
schoolsBrown
public places and jobsCivil Rights Act
segregation allowedPlessy
  1. In court opinions, look for "we hold" or "we conclude." That is the decision. Also check whether you are reading the majority or a dissent (a judge who disagrees).
  2. Watch scope words that set limits: "in the field of public education," "on account of race," "places of public accommodation."
  3. For charts, read the legend (before/after). Work out every value before you choose.
  4. Separate fact from opinion. Dates and events are facts. Judgments and calls to action are opinions.

Check yourself

Civil rights
The Declaration of Sentiments (1848)

In July 1848, about 300 people met in Seneca Falls, New York, for the first women's rights convention in the United States. One hundred people — 68 women and 32 men — signed this declaration, written mainly by Elizabeth Cady Stanton.

(1) We hold these truths to be self-evident; that all men and women are created equal; that they are endowed by their Creator with certain inalienable rights; that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness …

(2) The history of mankind is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations on the part of man toward woman, having in direct object the establishment of an absolute tyranny over her. To prove this, let facts be submitted to a candid world.

(3) He has never permitted her to exercise her inalienable right to the elective franchise.

(4) He has compelled her to submit to laws, in the formation of which she had no voice.

In paragraph 3, the phrase "the elective franchise" most nearly means

Answer choices
Hint

Paragraph 4 gives a clue: women had "no voice" in forming the laws. How do citizens get a voice in choosing lawmakers?

Check yourself

Civil rights
The Declaration of Sentiments (1848)

In July 1848, about 300 people met in Seneca Falls, New York, for the first women's rights convention in the United States. One hundred people — 68 women and 32 men — signed this declaration, written mainly by Elizabeth Cady Stanton.

(1) We hold these truths to be self-evident; that all men and women are created equal; that they are endowed by their Creator with certain inalienable rights; that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness …

(2) The history of mankind is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations on the part of man toward woman, having in direct object the establishment of an absolute tyranny over her. To prove this, let facts be submitted to a candid world.

(3) He has never permitted her to exercise her inalienable right to the elective franchise.

(4) He has compelled her to submit to laws, in the formation of which she had no voice.

The authors of the Declaration of Sentiments closely copied the wording of the Declaration of Independence (1776) but added the words "and women." What was the most likely purpose of this choice?

Answer choices
Hint

Compare paragraph 1 with the famous line "all men are created equal." What does adding "and women" claim?

Summary

  • Abolitionists (Douglass, Tubman, Garrison) fought slavery. The 13th Amendment ended it in 1865.
  • Seneca Falls (1848) launched the women's suffrage movement. The 19th Amendment (1920) won the vote.
  • Plessy (1896) allowed "separate but equal." Brown (1954) declared segregated schools "inherently unequal."
  • Peaceful protests — Montgomery, sit-ins, Freedom Rides, Birmingham, Selma — led to the Civil Rights Act (1964) and the Voting Rights Act (1965).
  • Women, Latino Americans, American Indians, and people with disabilities built their own movements (Title IX, UFW, AIM, ADA).
  • On data questions, "percentage points" means subtract one percent from another.
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