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The Revolution and the Early Republic

Learn the causes and key events of the American Revolution, the shift from the Articles to the Constitution, and early presidents to the Monroe Doctrine.

Practice this skill 35 min Revolutionary and early republic periods Leer en español
Key idea

What you'll learn

In about 60 years, thirteen British colonies became an independent, growing nation.

This lesson covers four big questions:

  1. Why did the colonists rebel?
  2. How did they win the war?
  3. How did they replace a weak first government?
  4. What did the first presidents do? We follow them through the Louisiana Purchase, the War of 1812, and the Monroe Doctrine.

How this shows up on the GED:

  • Primary sources (documents written at the time): complaints in the Declaration, Thomas Paine, Washington's Farewell Address, and the Monroe Doctrine.
  • Cause and effect: Why did a tax lead to a war? Why did Shays' Rebellion lead to the Constitution?
  • Timelines and sequence: put events in order, or pick what came just before or after.
  • Data: census tables and charts. Some ask for a percent-change calculation.
Words to know

Key terms

  • French and Indian War (1754–1763) — Britain beat France in North America but went deep into debt.
  • Proclamation of 1763 — a British order. It banned settlement west of the Appalachian Mountains.
  • "No taxation without representation" — the colonists' claim. Only their own elected assemblies could tax them.
  • boycott — refusing to buy goods as a protest. Colonists boycotted British cloth, the way people today might skip a store they are angry at.
  • Loyalist / Patriot — a colonist who supported Britain / a colonist who supported independence.
  • militia — citizen soldiers who train part time (the Minutemen).
  • precedent — an action that sets an example for the future (Washington serving two terms).
  • cabinet — the president's group of top advisers (Secretary of State, Secretary of the Treasury).
  • political party — a group organized to win elections (Federalists vs. Democratic-Republicans).
  • judicial review — the courts' power to strike down laws that break the Constitution (Marbury v. Madison, 1803).
  • impressment — forcing sailors into a navy. Before 1812, Britain seized American sailors this way.
  • neutrality — not taking sides in other nations' wars. Think of a friend who stays out of an argument.
  • nationalism — strong pride in and loyalty to one's nation, like fans cheering for their home team.

All Social Studies words in the glossary

Causes of the Revolution (1763–1775)

In plain words: Britain needed money after a war, so it taxed the colonies. The colonists said, "You can't tax us. We have no vote in your Parliament."

The French and Indian War ended in 1763. Britain won, but it now had a huge debt. Britain decided the colonies should help pay for their own defense. A chain of laws and protests followed:

YearBritish actionColonial reaction
1763Proclamation Line bans settlement west of the AppalachiansAnger from settlers and land buyers
1765Stamp Act taxes printed papersBoycotts; Stamp Act Congress; repealed 1766
1767Townshend Acts tax glass, paint, paper, teaMore boycotts; troops sent to Boston
1770Soldiers fire on a crowd — Boston Massacre (5 killed)Propaganda such as Paul Revere's engraving
1773Tea ActBoston Tea Party — tea dumped in the harbor
1774Coercive ("Intolerable") Acts close Boston HarborFirst Continental Congress meets
Cause and effect chain leading to the American Revolution: 1763: French and Indian War ends; Britain is deep in debt; then 1765–73: Parliament taxes the colonies: Stamp Act, Townshend Acts, Tea Act; then 1765–73: Colonists protest “no taxation without representation”: boycotts, Tea Party; then 1774: Coercive (“Intolerable”) Acts close Boston Harbor; then 1774: First Continental Congress meets; then 1775: Fighting begins at Lexington and Concord. British actions are red and colonial reactions are blue. Cause → effect: the road to revolution (1763–1775) 1763 French and Indian War ends; Britain is deep in debt 1765–73 Parliament taxes the colonies: Stamp Act, Townshend Acts, Tea Act 1765–73 Colonists protest “no taxation without representation”: boycotts, Tea Party 1774 Coercive (“Intolerable”) Acts close Boston Harbor 1774 First Continental Congress meets 1775 Fighting begins at Lexington and Concord

The core issue was who had the right to tax and govern the colonies. Colonists had elected their own assemblies for over a century. Parliament was far away in London, and the colonists had no representatives there. So they argued that Parliament could not tax them.

Think of it this way. Imagine a landlord in another country raising your rent. You never got to vote on it, and you have no say. That is how many colonists felt.

The War for Independence (1775–1783)

In plain words: The war lasted eight years. A key win at Saratoga brought France in as an ally, and that help led to victory.

WhenEventWhy it matters
April 1775Lexington and ConcordThe first battles, near Boston
January 1776Common SenseThomas Paine's pamphlet argued for independence in plain language. It sold more than 100,000 copies.
July 4, 1776Declaration of IndependenceThe colonies declare they are a new nation
1777SaratogaAn American victory and the turning point. It convinced France to sign an alliance (1778) and send money, troops, and ships.
Winter 1777–78Valley ForgeWashington's army suffered but was retrained into a stronger force
1781YorktownWith French help, Americans trapped a British army. Fighting largely ended.
1783Treaty of ParisBritain recognized U.S. independence, with land to the Mississippi River
Timeline of the War for Independence drawn to scale, 1775 to 1784: April 1775 Lexington and Concord; January 1776 Common Sense; July 4, 1776 Declaration of Independence; October 1777 Saratoga, the turning point; winter 1777 to 1778 Valley Forge; February 1778 alliance with France; October 1781 Yorktown; September 1783 Treaty of Paris. War for Independence, 1775–1783 (drawn to scale) 1775 1776 1777 1778 1779 1780 1781 1782 1783 1784 Apr 1775 Lexington & Concord Jan 1776 Common Sense July 4, 1776 Declaration Oct 1777 Saratoga: turning point Feb 1778 alliance with France Winter 1777–78 Valley Forge Oct 1781 Yorktown Sep 1783 Treaty of Paris

Why did the Americans win?

  • They fought on home ground, like a sports team playing in its own stadium.
  • Washington was a determined leader.
  • France sent aid.
  • Britain was fighting far from home, so supplies had to cross an ocean.

From the Articles to the Constitution

In plain words: The first government was too weak to work. A farmers' uprising proved it. So leaders wrote a new plan.

The Articles of Confederation took effect in 1781. They gave the national government little power:

  • Congress could not tax.
  • Congress could not control trade between states.
  • There was no president (executive) and no national courts.

Shays' Rebellion (1786–87) was a farmers' uprising in Massachusetts. It showed how weak the national government was.

At the Constitutional Convention (Philadelphia, 1787), delegates wrote a new plan. Big states and small states disagreed, so they made deals called compromises:

  • Great Compromise: the House is based on population. The Senate has two members per state. Big states got the House; small states got equal votes in the Senate.
  • Three-Fifths Compromise: three-fifths of enslaved people were counted for representation and taxes.
Diagram of the Great Compromise of 1787. Big states wanted representation based on population; small states wanted equal votes for every state. The compromise created a Congress with two houses: the House of Representatives, with seats based on population (what big states wanted), and the Senate, with two senators per state (what small states wanted). The Great Compromise (1787) Big states wanted representation based on population Small states wanted an equal vote for every state Congress: two houses House of Representatives seats based on population (bigger state = more seats) Senate 2 senators per state (every state equal)

Then came the fight over approval, or ratification:

  • Federalists (Hamilton, Madison) wanted the stronger government.
  • Anti-Federalists (Patrick Henry) feared it.
  • The fight was settled partly by promising the Bill of Rights (1791).

The early republic: Washington to Monroe (1789–1825)

In plain words: The first five presidents set up how the new government would work, grew the country, and kept Europe at a distance.

Timeline drawn to scale of the first five presidents, 1789 to 1825: Washington 1789 to 1797, Adams 1797 to 1801, Jefferson 1801 to 1809, Madison 1809 to 1817, Monroe 1817 to 1825. Events: 1796 Washington's Farewell Address; 1803 Louisiana Purchase and Marbury v. Madison; 1804 to 1806 Lewis and Clark; 1812 to 1815 War of 1812; 1823 Monroe Doctrine. The first five presidents, 1789–1825 (to scale) Washington Adams Jefferson Madison Monroe 1789 1797 1801 1809 1817 1825 1796 Farewell Address 1803 Louisiana Purchase; Marbury v. Madison 1804–06 Lewis and Clark 1812–15 War of 1812 1823 Monroe Doctrine

George Washington (1789–1797) set precedents — examples later presidents followed:

  • He formed a cabinet.
  • He used the title "Mr. President."
  • He stepped down after two terms.

His Treasury Secretary, Alexander Hamilton, created a national bank. He also had the national government pay the states' war debts. Thomas Jefferson opposed a strong central government. Their split produced the first political parties: Federalists vs. Democratic-Republicans. In his Farewell Address (1796), Washington warned against parties and against permanent foreign alliances.

John Adams (1797–1801) kept the nation out of a full war with France.

Thomas Jefferson (1801–1809) made the Louisiana Purchase (1803):

  • about 828,000 square miles from France for $15 million;
  • it doubled the size of the country;
  • it secured the Mississippi River and New Orleans for farmers shipping crops.
Schematic map, not to scale, with simplified shapes. The United States in 1803 lies between the Atlantic Ocean and the Mississippi River. The Louisiana Purchase (1803, bought from France) lies west of the Mississippi River and reaches the Rocky Mountains, roughly doubling the country. New Orleans sits near the mouth of the Mississippi on the Gulf of Mexico. British lands are to the north, Spanish lands to the southwest, and Spanish Florida to the southeast. Schematic map (not to scale): the Louisiana Purchase, 1803 Louisiana Purchase 1803, from France United States in 1803 Mississippi River New Orleans Rocky Mountains Spanish lands British lands Spanish Florida Gulf of Mexico Atlantic Ocean

He sent Lewis and Clark (1804–1806) to explore the new land. Sacagawea helped guide them. Also in 1803, in Marbury v. Madison, the Supreme Court established judicial review.

James Madison (1809–1817) led the nation into the War of 1812 against Britain. The causes:

  • British impressment of American sailors;
  • British interference with U.S. trade;
  • British support for Native American resistance in the West.

Key events of the war:

  • The British burned Washington, D.C. (1814).
  • The defense of Fort McHenry inspired "The Star-Spangled Banner."
  • Andrew Jackson won the Battle of New Orleans (January 1815). But the peace treaty (Treaty of Ghent) had already been signed in December 1814. News traveled slowly by ship.

The war changed no borders. But it boosted nationalism — pride in the nation.

James Monroe (1817–1825) led during the "Era of Good Feelings." The Monroe Doctrine (1823) warned Europe not to create new colonies in the Americas. In return, the U.S. would stay out of Europe's wars. It was like a sign on a fence: "Stay out of our yard, and we'll stay out of yours." (That comparison is ours, not Monroe's words.)

Timeline, 1763–1823

Timeline from 1763 to 1823, not to scale: 1763 French and Indian War ends; 1765 Stamp Act; 1770 Boston Massacre; 1773 Boston Tea Party; 1775 Battles of Lexington and Concord; 1776 Declaration of Independence; 1783 Treaty of Paris; 1787 Constitution written; 1803 Louisiana Purchase; 1812–1815 War of 1812; 1823 Monroe Doctrine. From Colonies to a Growing Republic, 1763–1823 (not to scale) 1763 French and Indian War ends 1765 Stamp Act 1770 Boston Massacre 1773 Boston Tea Party 1775 Lexington and Concord 1776 Declaration of Independence 1783 Treaty of Paris 1787 Constitution written 1803 Louisiana Purchase 1812–15 War of 1812 1823 Monroe Doctrine

Notice the order. The protests (1765–1773) came before the fighting (1775). The fighting came before the Declaration (1776).

Formula

Percent change (for census and data questions)

In plain words: Percent change tells you how much something grew or shrank, compared with where it started.

\text{percent change} = \dfrac{\text{new value} - \text{old value}}{\text{old value}} \times 100

Steps:

  1. Find the old value (the earlier year) and the new value (the later year).
  2. Subtract: new − old.
  3. Divide by the old value.
  4. Multiply by 100.

A positive result is an increase. A negative result is a decrease.

Everyday example: Your rent goes from $800 to $880. The change is $80. Then 80 \div 800 = 0.10, so that is a 10% increase.

Census example: population 3.93 million (1790) → 5.31 million (1800): \dfrac{5.31 - 3.93}{3.93} \times 100 \approx 35.1\%.

Bar model of percent change in U.S. population. 1790: 3.93 million. 1800: 5.31 million. Bars drawn to scale. The extra piece, 1.38 million, is the change. Percent change = 1.38 divided by 3.93 (the old value) times 100, about 35.1 percent. Percent change: compare the change with the OLD value 1790 old = 3.93 million 1800 new = 5.31 million +1.38 change = 5.31 − 3.93 = 1.38 million 1.38 ÷ 3.93 × 100 ≈ 35.1%

This formula is not on a GED reference sheet for Social Studies, so memorize it. The on-screen calculator is available for Social Studies.

Worked example

Worked example 1 — Author's argument

"There is something very absurd, in supposing a continent to be perpetually governed by an island." — Thomas Paine, Common Sense, 1776

Question: Paine uses this comparison mainly to argue that (A) Britain should give the colonies seats in Parliament (B) it makes no sense for a small, distant country to rule America forever (C) islands are easier to defend than continents (D) the colonies should stop trading with Britain

Think-aloud:

  1. Decode the words. Continent = America. Island = Great Britain. Perpetually = forever.
  2. He calls this "absurd," which means foolish. So he argues that British rule should end.
  3. Check the others:
    • (A) is about fixing British rule, not ending it.
    • (C) reads the words too literally, as if the point were geography.
    • (D) is not mentioned.

Answer: B.

Worked example

Worked example 2 — Sequence

Question: Which event happened between the Treaty of Paris (1783) and the Louisiana Purchase (1803)? (A) Boston Tea Party (B) Constitutional Convention (C) War of 1812 (D) Monroe Doctrine

Think-aloud:

  1. Write the frame: 1783 ___ 1803.
  2. Put a date on each choice:
    • Tea Party: 1773. Too early.
    • Constitutional Convention: 1787. ✔
    • War of 1812: began in 1812. Too late.
    • Monroe Doctrine: 1823. Too late.
Number line from 1765 to 1830 drawn to scale. The frame from 1783 (Treaty of Paris) to 1803 (Louisiana Purchase) is shaded. Choice A, Boston Tea Party 1773, is before the frame. Choice B, Constitutional Convention 1787, is inside the frame. Choice C, War of 1812, begins in 1812, after the frame. Choice D, Monroe Doctrine 1823, is after the frame. Which event falls between 1783 and 1803? 1783 1803 Treaty of Paris Louisiana Purchase 1765 1830 (A) 1773 Tea Party (B) 1787 Convention (C) 1812 War of 1812 (D) 1823 Monroe Doctrine

Answer: B.

Worked example

Worked example 3 — Price calculation

Question: The United States paid $15 million for about 828,000 square miles. About how much did it pay per square mile?

Think-aloud:

  1. "Per square mile" means divide the dollars by the square miles. It is like finding the price per pound at the grocery store.
  2. 15{,}000{,}000 \div 828{,}000 \approx 18.12.
  3. Check it: 828,000 × $18 ≈ $14.9 million ✓

Answer: about $18 per square mile. One square mile = 640 acres, so that is under 3 cents per acre.

Worked example

Worked example 4 — Cause and effect

Background: Before 1812, the British navy stopped American ships and forced thousands of American sailors into British service. Britain also blocked U.S. trade with France and supplied weapons to Native American nations resisting U.S. settlement in the Northwest.

Question: Which was a cause of the War of 1812? (A) The Monroe Doctrine (B) British impressment of American sailors (C) The burning of Washington, D.C. (D) The Battle of New Orleans

Think-aloud:

  1. A cause must come before the war. The background lists three: impressment, blocked trade, and weapons for Native nations.
  2. Check the others:
    • (A) came in 1823 — after the war.
    • (C) and (D) happened during the war (1814 and 1815). They are events of the war, not causes.
Sorting chart for the War of 1812. Before the war (possible causes): British impressment of American sailors; Britain blocked U.S. trade with France; Britain supplied weapons to Native nations. During the war, 1812 to 1815 (events, not causes): British burn Washington, D.C. in 1814; Battle of New Orleans in January 1815. After the war (cannot be a cause): Monroe Doctrine, 1823. A cause must come BEFORE the effect before 1812 1812–1815 after 1815 BEFORE: causes • impressment of U.S. sailors • blocked U.S. trade • British weapons to Native nations DURING: events • Washington, D.C. burned (1814) • Battle of New Orleans (Jan. 1815) AFTER Monroe Doctrine (1823)

Answer: B.

Common mistake

Common traps

  • Revolution order mix-ups. The Declaration (1776) came after the fighting began (1775), not before.
  • Calling the cause of the Revolution just "taxes." The deeper issue was who had the right to tax and govern. That means representation and self-government.
  • Thinking the Louisiana Purchase came from Spain or Britain. It was bought from France (Napoleon) in 1803.
  • Saying the Monroe Doctrine started U.S. colonies in Latin America. It warned Europe against new colonies. It did not create American ones.
  • Dividing by the wrong value in percent change. Always divide by the earlier value.
  • Assuming that events at the same time are cause and effect. Population growth and the Louisiana Purchase overlap in time. But the data alone do not prove one caused the other. Ice cream sales and sunburns both rise in summer, but ice cream does not cause sunburn.
Test strategy

GED strategy for this period

  1. Learn the anchor dates: 1763, 1765, 1775, 1776, 1781, 1783, 1787, 1789, 1791, 1803, 1812, 1823. Most sequence questions use these.
  2. Find the speaker's audience. Washington spoke to Americans. Monroe warned Europe. The audience tells you the purpose.
  3. On paired sources, first decide what each source says by itself. Then choose what they share.
  4. Check chart titles, units, and years before you calculate. "Millions" matters.
  5. Keep "increase" and "percent increase" apart. They can point to different answers. A town that grows from 100 to 200 people doubles (100%). A city that grows from 1 million to 1.1 million adds more people, but grows only 10%.

Check yourself

Revolutionary and early republic periods
Grievances in the Declaration of Independence (1776)

In the Declaration of Independence, the colonists listed their complaints, or grievances, against King George III. "He" refers to the King.

(1) The history of the present King of Great Britain is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having in direct object the establishment of an absolute Tyranny over these States. To prove this, let Facts be submitted to a candid world.

(2) He has kept among us, in times of peace, Standing Armies without the Consent of our legislatures. …

(3) He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign to our constitution, and unacknowledged by our laws; giving his Assent to their Acts of pretended Legislation:

For Quartering large bodies of armed troops among us: …

For cutting off our Trade with all parts of the world:

For imposing Taxes on us without our Consent:

For depriving us in many cases, of the benefits of Trial by Jury: …

In 1765, the British Parliament passed the Stamp Act, which required colonists to pay a tax on newspapers, legal papers, and other printed documents. Which grievance from the excerpt is most closely connected to the Stamp Act?

Answer choices
Hint

The Stamp Act was a tax. Which line in paragraph 3 mentions taxes?

Check yourself

Revolutionary and early republic periods
Grievances in the Declaration of Independence (1776)

In the Declaration of Independence, the colonists listed their complaints, or grievances, against King George III. "He" refers to the King.

(1) The history of the present King of Great Britain is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having in direct object the establishment of an absolute Tyranny over these States. To prove this, let Facts be submitted to a candid world.

(2) He has kept among us, in times of peace, Standing Armies without the Consent of our legislatures. …

(3) He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign to our constitution, and unacknowledged by our laws; giving his Assent to their Acts of pretended Legislation:

For Quartering large bodies of armed troops among us: …

For cutting off our Trade with all parts of the world:

For imposing Taxes on us without our Consent:

For depriving us in many cases, of the benefits of Trial by Jury: …

In paragraph 3, the colonists call laws made by Parliament "Acts of pretended Legislation." Why do they use the word pretended?

Answer choices
Hint

Read the first part of paragraph 3: the King joined with others to subject the colonies to a jurisdiction (authority) that was what?

Summary

  • After 1763, British taxes and laws (Stamp Act, Tea Act, Intolerable Acts) sparked protests. The fight was over representation and self-government.
  • The war began in 1775. Independence was declared in 1776. Saratoga brought French aid. Yorktown (1781) and the Treaty of Paris (1783) ended the war.
  • The weak Articles and Shays' Rebellion led to the 1787 Constitution and the 1791 Bill of Rights.
  • Washington set precedents and warned against alliances. Jefferson bought Louisiana (1803). Madison fought the War of 1812.
  • The Monroe Doctrine (1823) told Europe to stay out of the Americas.
  • On data items, use percent change = (new − old) ÷ old × 100.
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