Individual rights and civic responsibilities

The first ten amendments to the U.S. Constitution were ratified in 1791. Together they are called the Bill of Rights. Five of them are quoted below.

(1) First Amendment: "Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances."

(2) Fourth Amendment: "The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized."

(3) Fifth Amendment: "No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a Grand Jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the Militia, when in actual service in time of War or public danger; nor shall any person be subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use, without just compensation."

(4) Sixth Amendment: "In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation; to be confronted with the witnesses against him; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the Assistance of Counsel for his defence."

(5) Eighth Amendment: "Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted."

The first ten amendments to the U.S. Constitution were ratified in 1791. Together they are called the Bill of Rights. Five of them are quoted below.

(1) First Amendment: "Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances."

(2) Fourth Amendment: "The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized."

(3) Fifth Amendment: "No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a Grand Jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the Militia, when in actual service in time of War or public danger; nor shall any person be subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use, without just compensation."

(4) Sixth Amendment: "In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation; to be confronted with the witnesses against him; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the Assistance of Counsel for his defence."

(5) Eighth Amendment: "Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted."

After the Civil War, and again in the 1900s, Americans amended the Constitution to protect more people. Each excerpt below is the first section of the amendment.

(1) Thirteenth Amendment (1865): "Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction."

(2) Fourteenth Amendment (1868): "All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside. No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States; nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws."

(3) Fifteenth Amendment (1870): "The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude."

(4) Nineteenth Amendment (1920): "The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of sex."

(5) Twenty-sixth Amendment (1971): "The right of citizens of the United States, who are eighteen years of age or older, to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of age."

The first ten amendments to the U.S. Constitution, ratified in 1791, are called the Bill of Rights. Five of them are quoted below.

(1) Second Amendment: "A well regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be infringed."

(2) Third Amendment: "No Soldier shall, in time of peace be quartered in any house, without the consent of the Owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law."

(3) Seventh Amendment: "In Suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved …"

(4) Ninth Amendment: "The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people."

(5) Tenth Amendment: "The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people."

Note: "Suits at common law" are civil lawsuits, such as disputes between people or businesses over money, property or contracts. They are not criminal cases.

The first ten amendments to the U.S. Constitution, ratified in 1791, are called the Bill of Rights. Five of them are quoted below.

(1) Second Amendment: "A well regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be infringed."

(2) Third Amendment: "No Soldier shall, in time of peace be quartered in any house, without the consent of the Owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law."

(3) Seventh Amendment: "In Suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved …"

(4) Ninth Amendment: "The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people."

(5) Tenth Amendment: "The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people."

Note: "Suits at common law" are civil lawsuits, such as disputes between people or businesses over money, property or contracts. They are not criminal cases.

An original notice from the fictional Harmon County Circuit Court.

JURY SUMMONS — Harmon County Circuit Court

(1) You have been randomly selected from lists of registered voters and licensed drivers to serve as a juror. Please report to the courthouse at 210 Elm Street on Monday, May 4, at 8:00 a.m.

(2) What you must do. Complete the enclosed juror questionnaire and return it within 10 days. Report on the date shown unless the court has excused you or postponed your service. Jury service is required by state law. A person who fails to appear without a valid excuse may be ordered to explain the absence to a judge and may be fined up to $500.

(3) Postponements and excuses. You may request one postponement of up to 90 days by calling the jury office. A judge may excuse a person who has a serious illness, is the only caregiver for a young child or a disabled adult, or would suffer extreme financial hardship. Being busy at work is not, by itself, a valid excuse.

(4) Your protections as a juror. Your employer may not fire or punish you for serving. Jurors are paid $25 per day plus mileage.

(5) Why it matters. The Sixth Amendment guarantees a person accused of a crime a trial by an impartial jury, and the Seventh Amendment preserves jury trials in many civil cases. These rights work only if citizens show up to serve.

(6) A note from the clerk. Serving on a jury when summoned is a legal duty. Many other parts of citizenship are responsibilities — things the law does not require, such as voting, staying informed about public issues and attending community meetings. Both help keep self-government working.

The first ten amendments to the U.S. Constitution were ratified in 1791. Together they are called the Bill of Rights. Five of them are quoted below.

(1) First Amendment: "Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances."

(2) Fourth Amendment: "The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized."

(3) Fifth Amendment: "No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a Grand Jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the Militia, when in actual service in time of War or public danger; nor shall any person be subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use, without just compensation."

(4) Sixth Amendment: "In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation; to be confronted with the witnesses against him; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the Assistance of Counsel for his defence."

(5) Eighth Amendment: "Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted."

A handout from a fictional county library's "New Voters" class.

(1) Being a citizen of the United States brings two kinds of obligations. Duties are things the law requires. If you ignore a duty, you can face a penalty, such as a fine or even jail. Responsibilities are things good citizens choose to do. The law does not force you to do them, but communities work better when people do.

(2) Duties. Citizens must obey federal, state and local laws. They must pay the taxes they owe. They must serve on a jury when they receive a jury summons, and they must appear in court as a witness if they receive a subpoena. Most men ages 18 through 25 living in the United States must register with the Selective Service System, which keeps a list of people who could be drafted into the military in an emergency. Children must attend school until an age set by their state.

(3) Responsibilities. Good citizens vote in elections. They stay informed about issues and candidates. They respect the rights and opinions of others, even people they disagree with. They take part in their communities, for example by volunteering, attending public meetings, or contacting their elected officials.

(4) Voting is a right and a responsibility, but no federal law requires Americans to vote. Some other countries, such as Australia, do require citizens to vote.

(5) Many rights come with responsibilities attached. Your freedom of speech, for example, works best when you also respect other people's freedom to speak.

(1) The Supreme Court decides what the Constitution means when real people bring real disputes to court. The summaries below are written for this app. The short quotations come from the Court's published opinions.

(2) Plessy v. Ferguson (1896). Homer Plessy challenged a Louisiana law that forced Black and white passengers to ride in separate railroad cars. The Court ruled 7–1 that the law was allowed as long as the separate facilities were equal. This became known as the "separate but equal" rule. Justice John Marshall Harlan disagreed in a dissent: "Our Constitution is color-blind, and neither knows nor tolerates classes among citizens."

(3) Brown v. Board of Education (1954). Black families in Topeka, Kansas, and other places challenged laws that sent their children to separate public schools. The Court asked: "Does segregation of children in public schools solely on the basis of race, even though the physical facilities and other 'tangible' factors may be equal, deprive the children of the minority group of equal educational opportunities? We believe that it does." In a unanimous decision, Chief Justice Earl Warren wrote: "We conclude that in the field of public education the doctrine of 'separate but equal' has no place. Separate educational facilities are inherently unequal." The Court said segregation denied the children "the equal protection of the laws guaranteed by the Fourteenth Amendment."

(4) Gideon v. Wainwright (1963). Clarence Earl Gideon was charged with a felony in Florida. He could not afford a lawyer and asked the court to appoint one. The judge refused, and Gideon was convicted. The Supreme Court ruled unanimously that the Sixth Amendment right to counsel applies to the states through the Fourteenth Amendment, so states must provide a lawyer to a person accused of a serious crime who cannot afford one. Justice Hugo Black wrote that "lawyers in criminal courts are necessities, not luxuries."

(5) Miranda v. Arizona (1966). Ernesto Miranda confessed to a crime during police questioning without being told his rights. The Court ruled 5–4 that his confession could not be used against him. The opinion said: "Prior to any questioning, the person must be warned that he has a right to remain silent, that any statement he does make may be used as evidence against him, and that he has a right to the presence of an attorney, either retained or appointed." These warnings protect the Fifth Amendment right not to be a witness against oneself.

(6) Tinker v. Des Moines (1969). Students in Des Moines, Iowa, were suspended for wearing black armbands to school to protest the Vietnam War. The Court ruled 7–2 for the students. Justice Abe Fortas wrote: "It can hardly be argued that either students or teachers shed their constitutional rights to freedom of speech or expression at the schoolhouse gate." The Court added that a school may limit student expression if it would substantially disrupt school or invade the rights of others, but the quiet armbands did neither.

(1) The Supreme Court decides what the Constitution means when real people bring real disputes to court. The summaries below are written for this app. The short quotations come from the Court's published opinions.

(2) Plessy v. Ferguson (1896). Homer Plessy challenged a Louisiana law that forced Black and white passengers to ride in separate railroad cars. The Court ruled 7–1 that the law was allowed as long as the separate facilities were equal. This became known as the "separate but equal" rule. Justice John Marshall Harlan disagreed in a dissent: "Our Constitution is color-blind, and neither knows nor tolerates classes among citizens."

(3) Brown v. Board of Education (1954). Black families in Topeka, Kansas, and other places challenged laws that sent their children to separate public schools. The Court asked: "Does segregation of children in public schools solely on the basis of race, even though the physical facilities and other 'tangible' factors may be equal, deprive the children of the minority group of equal educational opportunities? We believe that it does." In a unanimous decision, Chief Justice Earl Warren wrote: "We conclude that in the field of public education the doctrine of 'separate but equal' has no place. Separate educational facilities are inherently unequal." The Court said segregation denied the children "the equal protection of the laws guaranteed by the Fourteenth Amendment."

(4) Gideon v. Wainwright (1963). Clarence Earl Gideon was charged with a felony in Florida. He could not afford a lawyer and asked the court to appoint one. The judge refused, and Gideon was convicted. The Supreme Court ruled unanimously that the Sixth Amendment right to counsel applies to the states through the Fourteenth Amendment, so states must provide a lawyer to a person accused of a serious crime who cannot afford one. Justice Hugo Black wrote that "lawyers in criminal courts are necessities, not luxuries."

(5) Miranda v. Arizona (1966). Ernesto Miranda confessed to a crime during police questioning without being told his rights. The Court ruled 5–4 that his confession could not be used against him. The opinion said: "Prior to any questioning, the person must be warned that he has a right to remain silent, that any statement he does make may be used as evidence against him, and that he has a right to the presence of an attorney, either retained or appointed." These warnings protect the Fifth Amendment right not to be a witness against oneself.

(6) Tinker v. Des Moines (1969). Students in Des Moines, Iowa, were suspended for wearing black armbands to school to protest the Vietnam War. The Court ruled 7–2 for the students. Justice Abe Fortas wrote: "It can hardly be argued that either students or teachers shed their constitutional rights to freedom of speech or expression at the schoolhouse gate." The Court added that a school may limit student expression if it would substantially disrupt school or invade the rights of others, but the quiet armbands did neither.

The first ten amendments to the U.S. Constitution, ratified in 1791, are called the Bill of Rights. Five of them are quoted below.

(1) Second Amendment: "A well regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be infringed."

(2) Third Amendment: "No Soldier shall, in time of peace be quartered in any house, without the consent of the Owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law."

(3) Seventh Amendment: "In Suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved …"

(4) Ninth Amendment: "The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people."

(5) Tenth Amendment: "The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people."

Note: "Suits at common law" are civil lawsuits, such as disputes between people or businesses over money, property or contracts. They are not criminal cases.

A handout from a fictional adult-education civics course.

(1) The rights in the Bill of Rights are strong, but they are not absolute. Courts often weigh one person's freedom against the rights of others and the safety of the public.

(2) Speech. In general, the government may not punish speech just because people find the message offensive, rude or unpopular. However, a few kinds of speech are not protected: speech that is meant to cause, and is likely to cause, immediate illegal action (called incitement); true threats to harm a specific person; and defamation — false statements of fact that damage someone's reputation.

(3) Time, place and manner. The government may set reasonable rules about when, where and how people speak or gather, as long as the rules are neutral about the message and leave other ways to communicate. For example, a city may require a permit for a march that will block a busy street, or limit loudspeakers in neighborhoods late at night. It may not give permits only to groups whose views officials like.

(4) Religion. People may believe whatever they wish. However, a person usually must still obey a general law that applies to everyone, even if the law conflicts with a religious practice. Congress and many states have passed laws that give religious practice extra protection in some situations.

(5) Who is limited? The First Amendment limits the government. It does not stop a private business from setting rules for its own workers. In many cases, a private employer may discipline an employee for things the employee says on the job.

(6) Courts decide hard cases one at a time, looking closely at the facts. Two situations that seem alike can have different results.

(1) The Supreme Court can overrule its own earlier decisions. Over the 1900s, the Court also ruled, one right at a time, that most protections in the Bill of Rights limit state governments as well as the federal government. It based these rulings on the Fourteenth Amendment, which says no state may deprive any person of liberty "without due process of law." The summaries below are written for this app.

(2) Betts v. Brady (1942) and Gideon v. Wainwright (1963). In Betts, the Court ruled that a state did not have to give a free lawyer to every poor person accused of a felony; a lawyer was required only in special circumstances. Twenty-one years later, Gideon overruled Betts. The Court held that a state must provide a lawyer to any person accused of a serious crime who cannot afford one.

(3) Wolf v. Colorado (1949) and Mapp v. Ohio (1961). In Wolf, the Court said the Fourth Amendment's protection against unreasonable searches applies to the states, but it did not require state courts to throw out evidence that police had gathered illegally. Then, in 1957, police in Cleveland, Ohio, forced their way into Dollree Mapp's home without showing a valid search warrant and found materials that were later used to convict her. In Mapp, the Court ruled 6–3 that evidence gathered in an unconstitutional search may not be used in state courts. This is called the exclusionary rule. On this point, Mapp overruled Wolf.

(4) Engel v. Vitale (1962). New York state officials wrote a short prayer that did not favor any one religion, and some public schools had students recite it each morning. Students who did not wish to pray could stay silent or leave the room. The Court ruled 6–1 that the practice violated the First Amendment's ban on an "establishment of religion." Government officials may not write official prayers for students to recite in public schools, even when the prayer favors no religion and taking part is voluntary.

(5) New Jersey v. T.L.O. (1985). A teacher found a 14-year-old student smoking in a school bathroom. An assistant vice principal searched her purse and found evidence that she had broken the law. The Court ruled 6–3 that the Fourth Amendment does apply to searches by public school officials, but that they do not need a warrant or probable cause. A school search is allowed if there are reasonable grounds to suspect it will turn up evidence that the student broke the law or a school rule, and if the search is not excessively intrusive.

(6) Texas v. Johnson (1989). During a protest outside the 1984 Republican National Convention in Dallas, Gregory Lee Johnson burned an American flag. He was convicted under a Texas law against damaging a flag. The Court ruled 5–4 that burning a flag as a political protest is expression protected by the First Amendment. The government may not ban the expression of an idea simply because society finds the idea offensive or disagreeable.

(1) Twenty-third Amendment (1961). Washington, D.C., is the nation's capital, but it is not a state. Before 1961, people who lived there could not vote for President, because only states chose electors. The amendment begins: "The District constituting the seat of Government of the United States shall appoint in such manner as the Congress may direct:" … It then gives the District a number of presidential electors, but never more than the least populous state has.

(2) Twenty-fourth Amendment (1964). A poll tax was a fee that a person had to pay before being allowed to vote. In the early 1960s, five Southern states still charged one. Many poor citizens, and especially many Black citizens in the South, were kept from voting by it. Section 1 of the amendment says: "The right of citizens of the United States to vote in any primary or other election for President or Vice President, for electors for President or Vice President, or for Senator or Representative in Congress, shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or any State by reason of failure to pay any poll tax or other tax."

(3) The Twenty-fourth Amendment applied only to elections for federal offices. Two years later, in Harper v. Virginia Board of Elections (1966), the Supreme Court ruled that poll taxes in state elections also violated the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment.

(1) The Supreme Court can overrule its own earlier decisions. Over the 1900s, the Court also ruled, one right at a time, that most protections in the Bill of Rights limit state governments as well as the federal government. It based these rulings on the Fourteenth Amendment, which says no state may deprive any person of liberty "without due process of law." The summaries below are written for this app.

(2) Betts v. Brady (1942) and Gideon v. Wainwright (1963). In Betts, the Court ruled that a state did not have to give a free lawyer to every poor person accused of a felony; a lawyer was required only in special circumstances. Twenty-one years later, Gideon overruled Betts. The Court held that a state must provide a lawyer to any person accused of a serious crime who cannot afford one.

(3) Wolf v. Colorado (1949) and Mapp v. Ohio (1961). In Wolf, the Court said the Fourth Amendment's protection against unreasonable searches applies to the states, but it did not require state courts to throw out evidence that police had gathered illegally. Then, in 1957, police in Cleveland, Ohio, forced their way into Dollree Mapp's home without showing a valid search warrant and found materials that were later used to convict her. In Mapp, the Court ruled 6–3 that evidence gathered in an unconstitutional search may not be used in state courts. This is called the exclusionary rule. On this point, Mapp overruled Wolf.

(4) Engel v. Vitale (1962). New York state officials wrote a short prayer that did not favor any one religion, and some public schools had students recite it each morning. Students who did not wish to pray could stay silent or leave the room. The Court ruled 6–1 that the practice violated the First Amendment's ban on an "establishment of religion." Government officials may not write official prayers for students to recite in public schools, even when the prayer favors no religion and taking part is voluntary.

(5) New Jersey v. T.L.O. (1985). A teacher found a 14-year-old student smoking in a school bathroom. An assistant vice principal searched her purse and found evidence that she had broken the law. The Court ruled 6–3 that the Fourth Amendment does apply to searches by public school officials, but that they do not need a warrant or probable cause. A school search is allowed if there are reasonable grounds to suspect it will turn up evidence that the student broke the law or a school rule, and if the search is not excessively intrusive.

(6) Texas v. Johnson (1989). During a protest outside the 1984 Republican National Convention in Dallas, Gregory Lee Johnson burned an American flag. He was convicted under a Texas law against damaging a flag. The Court ruled 5–4 that burning a flag as a political protest is expression protected by the First Amendment. The government may not ban the expression of an idea simply because society finds the idea offensive or disagreeable.

(1) In 2025, the fictional Riverton County surveyed 1,500 randomly selected adults. It asked which civic activities each person had done in the past 12 months. Each adult could name more than one activity.

(2) The chart shows the results for all adults.

(3) The table shows results for two of the activities by age group.

(1) The Supreme Court decides what the Constitution means when real people bring real disputes to court. The summaries below are written for this app. The short quotations come from the Court's published opinions.

(2) Plessy v. Ferguson (1896). Homer Plessy challenged a Louisiana law that forced Black and white passengers to ride in separate railroad cars. The Court ruled 7–1 that the law was allowed as long as the separate facilities were equal. This became known as the "separate but equal" rule. Justice John Marshall Harlan disagreed in a dissent: "Our Constitution is color-blind, and neither knows nor tolerates classes among citizens."

(3) Brown v. Board of Education (1954). Black families in Topeka, Kansas, and other places challenged laws that sent their children to separate public schools. The Court asked: "Does segregation of children in public schools solely on the basis of race, even though the physical facilities and other 'tangible' factors may be equal, deprive the children of the minority group of equal educational opportunities? We believe that it does." In a unanimous decision, Chief Justice Earl Warren wrote: "We conclude that in the field of public education the doctrine of 'separate but equal' has no place. Separate educational facilities are inherently unequal." The Court said segregation denied the children "the equal protection of the laws guaranteed by the Fourteenth Amendment."

(4) Gideon v. Wainwright (1963). Clarence Earl Gideon was charged with a felony in Florida. He could not afford a lawyer and asked the court to appoint one. The judge refused, and Gideon was convicted. The Supreme Court ruled unanimously that the Sixth Amendment right to counsel applies to the states through the Fourteenth Amendment, so states must provide a lawyer to a person accused of a serious crime who cannot afford one. Justice Hugo Black wrote that "lawyers in criminal courts are necessities, not luxuries."

(5) Miranda v. Arizona (1966). Ernesto Miranda confessed to a crime during police questioning without being told his rights. The Court ruled 5–4 that his confession could not be used against him. The opinion said: "Prior to any questioning, the person must be warned that he has a right to remain silent, that any statement he does make may be used as evidence against him, and that he has a right to the presence of an attorney, either retained or appointed." These warnings protect the Fifth Amendment right not to be a witness against oneself.

(6) Tinker v. Des Moines (1969). Students in Des Moines, Iowa, were suspended for wearing black armbands to school to protest the Vietnam War. The Court ruled 7–2 for the students. Justice Abe Fortas wrote: "It can hardly be argued that either students or teachers shed their constitutional rights to freedom of speech or expression at the schoolhouse gate." The Court added that a school may limit student expression if it would substantially disrupt school or invade the rights of others, but the quiet armbands did neither.

The first ten amendments to the U.S. Constitution, ratified in 1791, are called the Bill of Rights. Five of them are quoted below.

(1) Second Amendment: "A well regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be infringed."

(2) Third Amendment: "No Soldier shall, in time of peace be quartered in any house, without the consent of the Owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law."

(3) Seventh Amendment: "In Suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved …"

(4) Ninth Amendment: "The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people."

(5) Tenth Amendment: "The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people."

Note: "Suits at common law" are civil lawsuits, such as disputes between people or businesses over money, property or contracts. They are not criminal cases.

(1) The Supreme Court can overrule its own earlier decisions. Over the 1900s, the Court also ruled, one right at a time, that most protections in the Bill of Rights limit state governments as well as the federal government. It based these rulings on the Fourteenth Amendment, which says no state may deprive any person of liberty "without due process of law." The summaries below are written for this app.

(2) Betts v. Brady (1942) and Gideon v. Wainwright (1963). In Betts, the Court ruled that a state did not have to give a free lawyer to every poor person accused of a felony; a lawyer was required only in special circumstances. Twenty-one years later, Gideon overruled Betts. The Court held that a state must provide a lawyer to any person accused of a serious crime who cannot afford one.

(3) Wolf v. Colorado (1949) and Mapp v. Ohio (1961). In Wolf, the Court said the Fourth Amendment's protection against unreasonable searches applies to the states, but it did not require state courts to throw out evidence that police had gathered illegally. Then, in 1957, police in Cleveland, Ohio, forced their way into Dollree Mapp's home without showing a valid search warrant and found materials that were later used to convict her. In Mapp, the Court ruled 6–3 that evidence gathered in an unconstitutional search may not be used in state courts. This is called the exclusionary rule. On this point, Mapp overruled Wolf.

(4) Engel v. Vitale (1962). New York state officials wrote a short prayer that did not favor any one religion, and some public schools had students recite it each morning. Students who did not wish to pray could stay silent or leave the room. The Court ruled 6–1 that the practice violated the First Amendment's ban on an "establishment of religion." Government officials may not write official prayers for students to recite in public schools, even when the prayer favors no religion and taking part is voluntary.

(5) New Jersey v. T.L.O. (1985). A teacher found a 14-year-old student smoking in a school bathroom. An assistant vice principal searched her purse and found evidence that she had broken the law. The Court ruled 6–3 that the Fourth Amendment does apply to searches by public school officials, but that they do not need a warrant or probable cause. A school search is allowed if there are reasonable grounds to suspect it will turn up evidence that the student broke the law or a school rule, and if the search is not excessively intrusive.

(6) Texas v. Johnson (1989). During a protest outside the 1984 Republican National Convention in Dallas, Gregory Lee Johnson burned an American flag. He was convicted under a Texas law against damaging a flag. The Court ruled 5–4 that burning a flag as a political protest is expression protected by the First Amendment. The government may not ban the expression of an idea simply because society finds the idea offensive or disagreeable.

(1) The Supreme Court can overrule its own earlier decisions. Over the 1900s, the Court also ruled, one right at a time, that most protections in the Bill of Rights limit state governments as well as the federal government. It based these rulings on the Fourteenth Amendment, which says no state may deprive any person of liberty "without due process of law." The summaries below are written for this app.

(2) Betts v. Brady (1942) and Gideon v. Wainwright (1963). In Betts, the Court ruled that a state did not have to give a free lawyer to every poor person accused of a felony; a lawyer was required only in special circumstances. Twenty-one years later, Gideon overruled Betts. The Court held that a state must provide a lawyer to any person accused of a serious crime who cannot afford one.

(3) Wolf v. Colorado (1949) and Mapp v. Ohio (1961). In Wolf, the Court said the Fourth Amendment's protection against unreasonable searches applies to the states, but it did not require state courts to throw out evidence that police had gathered illegally. Then, in 1957, police in Cleveland, Ohio, forced their way into Dollree Mapp's home without showing a valid search warrant and found materials that were later used to convict her. In Mapp, the Court ruled 6–3 that evidence gathered in an unconstitutional search may not be used in state courts. This is called the exclusionary rule. On this point, Mapp overruled Wolf.

(4) Engel v. Vitale (1962). New York state officials wrote a short prayer that did not favor any one religion, and some public schools had students recite it each morning. Students who did not wish to pray could stay silent or leave the room. The Court ruled 6–1 that the practice violated the First Amendment's ban on an "establishment of religion." Government officials may not write official prayers for students to recite in public schools, even when the prayer favors no religion and taking part is voluntary.

(5) New Jersey v. T.L.O. (1985). A teacher found a 14-year-old student smoking in a school bathroom. An assistant vice principal searched her purse and found evidence that she had broken the law. The Court ruled 6–3 that the Fourth Amendment does apply to searches by public school officials, but that they do not need a warrant or probable cause. A school search is allowed if there are reasonable grounds to suspect it will turn up evidence that the student broke the law or a school rule, and if the search is not excessively intrusive.

(6) Texas v. Johnson (1989). During a protest outside the 1984 Republican National Convention in Dallas, Gregory Lee Johnson burned an American flag. He was convicted under a Texas law against damaging a flag. The Court ruled 5–4 that burning a flag as a political protest is expression protected by the First Amendment. The government may not ban the expression of an idea simply because society finds the idea offensive or disagreeable.

The first ten amendments to the U.S. Constitution, ratified in 1791, are called the Bill of Rights. Five of them are quoted below.

(1) Second Amendment: "A well regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be infringed."

(2) Third Amendment: "No Soldier shall, in time of peace be quartered in any house, without the consent of the Owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law."

(3) Seventh Amendment: "In Suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved …"

(4) Ninth Amendment: "The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people."

(5) Tenth Amendment: "The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people."

Note: "Suits at common law" are civil lawsuits, such as disputes between people or businesses over money, property or contracts. They are not criminal cases.

A handout from a fictional adult-education civics course.

(1) The rights in the Bill of Rights are strong, but they are not absolute. Courts often weigh one person's freedom against the rights of others and the safety of the public.

(2) Speech. In general, the government may not punish speech just because people find the message offensive, rude or unpopular. However, a few kinds of speech are not protected: speech that is meant to cause, and is likely to cause, immediate illegal action (called incitement); true threats to harm a specific person; and defamation — false statements of fact that damage someone's reputation.

(3) Time, place and manner. The government may set reasonable rules about when, where and how people speak or gather, as long as the rules are neutral about the message and leave other ways to communicate. For example, a city may require a permit for a march that will block a busy street, or limit loudspeakers in neighborhoods late at night. It may not give permits only to groups whose views officials like.

(4) Religion. People may believe whatever they wish. However, a person usually must still obey a general law that applies to everyone, even if the law conflicts with a religious practice. Congress and many states have passed laws that give religious practice extra protection in some situations.

(5) Who is limited? The First Amendment limits the government. It does not stop a private business from setting rules for its own workers. In many cases, a private employer may discipline an employee for things the employee says on the job.

(6) Courts decide hard cases one at a time, looking closely at the facts. Two situations that seem alike can have different results.

After the Civil War, and again in the 1900s, Americans amended the Constitution to protect more people. Each excerpt below is the first section of the amendment.

(1) Thirteenth Amendment (1865): "Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction."

(2) Fourteenth Amendment (1868): "All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside. No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States; nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws."

(3) Fifteenth Amendment (1870): "The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude."

(4) Nineteenth Amendment (1920): "The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of sex."

(5) Twenty-sixth Amendment (1971): "The right of citizens of the United States, who are eighteen years of age or older, to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of age."

(1) The Supreme Court can overrule its own earlier decisions. Over the 1900s, the Court also ruled, one right at a time, that most protections in the Bill of Rights limit state governments as well as the federal government. It based these rulings on the Fourteenth Amendment, which says no state may deprive any person of liberty "without due process of law." The summaries below are written for this app.

(2) Betts v. Brady (1942) and Gideon v. Wainwright (1963). In Betts, the Court ruled that a state did not have to give a free lawyer to every poor person accused of a felony; a lawyer was required only in special circumstances. Twenty-one years later, Gideon overruled Betts. The Court held that a state must provide a lawyer to any person accused of a serious crime who cannot afford one.

(3) Wolf v. Colorado (1949) and Mapp v. Ohio (1961). In Wolf, the Court said the Fourth Amendment's protection against unreasonable searches applies to the states, but it did not require state courts to throw out evidence that police had gathered illegally. Then, in 1957, police in Cleveland, Ohio, forced their way into Dollree Mapp's home without showing a valid search warrant and found materials that were later used to convict her. In Mapp, the Court ruled 6–3 that evidence gathered in an unconstitutional search may not be used in state courts. This is called the exclusionary rule. On this point, Mapp overruled Wolf.

(4) Engel v. Vitale (1962). New York state officials wrote a short prayer that did not favor any one religion, and some public schools had students recite it each morning. Students who did not wish to pray could stay silent or leave the room. The Court ruled 6–1 that the practice violated the First Amendment's ban on an "establishment of religion." Government officials may not write official prayers for students to recite in public schools, even when the prayer favors no religion and taking part is voluntary.

(5) New Jersey v. T.L.O. (1985). A teacher found a 14-year-old student smoking in a school bathroom. An assistant vice principal searched her purse and found evidence that she had broken the law. The Court ruled 6–3 that the Fourth Amendment does apply to searches by public school officials, but that they do not need a warrant or probable cause. A school search is allowed if there are reasonable grounds to suspect it will turn up evidence that the student broke the law or a school rule, and if the search is not excessively intrusive.

(6) Texas v. Johnson (1989). During a protest outside the 1984 Republican National Convention in Dallas, Gregory Lee Johnson burned an American flag. He was convicted under a Texas law against damaging a flag. The Court ruled 5–4 that burning a flag as a political protest is expression protected by the First Amendment. The government may not ban the expression of an idea simply because society finds the idea offensive or disagreeable.

(1) The Supreme Court can overrule its own earlier decisions. Over the 1900s, the Court also ruled, one right at a time, that most protections in the Bill of Rights limit state governments as well as the federal government. It based these rulings on the Fourteenth Amendment, which says no state may deprive any person of liberty "without due process of law." The summaries below are written for this app.

(2) Betts v. Brady (1942) and Gideon v. Wainwright (1963). In Betts, the Court ruled that a state did not have to give a free lawyer to every poor person accused of a felony; a lawyer was required only in special circumstances. Twenty-one years later, Gideon overruled Betts. The Court held that a state must provide a lawyer to any person accused of a serious crime who cannot afford one.

(3) Wolf v. Colorado (1949) and Mapp v. Ohio (1961). In Wolf, the Court said the Fourth Amendment's protection against unreasonable searches applies to the states, but it did not require state courts to throw out evidence that police had gathered illegally. Then, in 1957, police in Cleveland, Ohio, forced their way into Dollree Mapp's home without showing a valid search warrant and found materials that were later used to convict her. In Mapp, the Court ruled 6–3 that evidence gathered in an unconstitutional search may not be used in state courts. This is called the exclusionary rule. On this point, Mapp overruled Wolf.

(4) Engel v. Vitale (1962). New York state officials wrote a short prayer that did not favor any one religion, and some public schools had students recite it each morning. Students who did not wish to pray could stay silent or leave the room. The Court ruled 6–1 that the practice violated the First Amendment's ban on an "establishment of religion." Government officials may not write official prayers for students to recite in public schools, even when the prayer favors no religion and taking part is voluntary.

(5) New Jersey v. T.L.O. (1985). A teacher found a 14-year-old student smoking in a school bathroom. An assistant vice principal searched her purse and found evidence that she had broken the law. The Court ruled 6–3 that the Fourth Amendment does apply to searches by public school officials, but that they do not need a warrant or probable cause. A school search is allowed if there are reasonable grounds to suspect it will turn up evidence that the student broke the law or a school rule, and if the search is not excessively intrusive.

(6) Texas v. Johnson (1989). During a protest outside the 1984 Republican National Convention in Dallas, Gregory Lee Johnson burned an American flag. He was convicted under a Texas law against damaging a flag. The Court ruled 5–4 that burning a flag as a political protest is expression protected by the First Amendment. The government may not ban the expression of an idea simply because society finds the idea offensive or disagreeable.