GED Social Studies Practice Test 2

Source 1: U.S. Constitution, Article VI, Clause 2 (the Supremacy Clause), 1787

(1) "This Constitution, and the Laws of the United States which shall be made in Pursuance thereof; and all Treaties made, or which shall be made, under the Authority of the United States, shall be the supreme Law of the Land; and the Judges in every State shall be bound thereby, any Thing in the Constitution or Laws of any State to the Contrary notwithstanding."

Source 2: James Madison, The Federalist No. 45, 1788

Madison wrote this essay to persuade New Yorkers to ratify the proposed Constitution.

(2) "The powers delegated by the proposed Constitution to the federal government are few and defined. Those which are to remain in the State governments are numerous and indefinite. The former will be exercised principally on external objects, as war, peace, negotiation, and foreign commerce; with which last the power of taxation will, for the most part, be connected. The powers reserved to the several States will extend to all the objects which, in the ordinary course of affairs, concern the lives, liberties, and properties of the people, and the internal order, improvement, and prosperity of the State."

Source 1: U.S. Constitution, Article VI, Clause 2 (the Supremacy Clause), 1787

(1) "This Constitution, and the Laws of the United States which shall be made in Pursuance thereof; and all Treaties made, or which shall be made, under the Authority of the United States, shall be the supreme Law of the Land; and the Judges in every State shall be bound thereby, any Thing in the Constitution or Laws of any State to the Contrary notwithstanding."

Source 2: James Madison, The Federalist No. 45, 1788

Madison wrote this essay to persuade New Yorkers to ratify the proposed Constitution.

(2) "The powers delegated by the proposed Constitution to the federal government are few and defined. Those which are to remain in the State governments are numerous and indefinite. The former will be exercised principally on external objects, as war, peace, negotiation, and foreign commerce; with which last the power of taxation will, for the most part, be connected. The powers reserved to the several States will extend to all the objects which, in the ordinary course of affairs, concern the lives, liberties, and properties of the people, and the internal order, improvement, and prosperity of the State."

Editor's note: When Abraham Lincoln took office on March 4, 1861, seven Southern states had already declared that they were leaving the Union and had formed the Confederate States of America. Lincoln spoke directly to them in his first speech as president.

(1) "I have no purpose, directly or indirectly, to interfere with the institution of slavery in the States where it exists. I believe I have no lawful right to do so, and I have no inclination to do so."

(2) "Plainly the central idea of secession is the essence of anarchy."

(3) "In your hands, my dissatisfied fellow-countrymen, and not in mine, is the momentous issue of civil war. The Government will not assail you. You can have no conflict without being yourselves the aggressors."

(4) "I am loath to close. We are not enemies, but friends. We must not be enemies. Though passion may have strained it must not break our bonds of affection."

Editor's note: About five weeks later, on April 12, 1861, Confederate forces opened fire on Fort Sumter, a U.S. Army fort in the harbor of Charleston, South Carolina. The Civil War had begun.

Editor's note: When Abraham Lincoln took office on March 4, 1861, seven Southern states had already declared that they were leaving the Union and had formed the Confederate States of America. Lincoln spoke directly to them in his first speech as president.

(1) "I have no purpose, directly or indirectly, to interfere with the institution of slavery in the States where it exists. I believe I have no lawful right to do so, and I have no inclination to do so."

(2) "Plainly the central idea of secession is the essence of anarchy."

(3) "In your hands, my dissatisfied fellow-countrymen, and not in mine, is the momentous issue of civil war. The Government will not assail you. You can have no conflict without being yourselves the aggressors."

(4) "I am loath to close. We are not enemies, but friends. We must not be enemies. Though passion may have strained it must not break our bonds of affection."

Editor's note: About five weeks later, on April 12, 1861, Confederate forces opened fire on Fort Sumter, a U.S. Army fort in the harbor of Charleston, South Carolina. The Civil War had begun.

(1) About 2,000 years ago, two great empires ruled at opposite ends of Asia and Europe. The Roman Empire surrounded the Mediterranean Sea. In East Asia, the Han dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE) ruled China. Each empire governed tens of millions of people spread across huge distances.

(2) Ruling so much land was a constant challenge. Both empires built networks of roads so that armies, government officials, messengers, and merchants could move quickly from the capital to distant provinces. Roman roads eventually stretched for tens of thousands of miles. Han China also built roads and canals. Trade routes later called the Silk Road carried Chinese silk west across Central Asia. Rome and Han China never conquered each other or exchanged regular official visits, but through many middlemen, Chinese silk reached the markets of Rome.

(3) Each empire also tried to tie its people together with shared systems. The Romans spread the Latin language, Roman law, and Roman coins. Han emperors used a single written language for government records and trained officials in Confucian teachings at an imperial academy.

(4) Both empires faced threats from peoples living beyond their frontiers. Han emperors repaired and extended long walls begun by earlier rulers to guard against the Xiongnu, nomadic horse riders from the northern grasslands. In Britain, the Roman emperor Hadrian ordered a stone wall built across the island beginning around 122 CE; it ran about 73 miles. Soldiers stationed along these walls watched for raiders, and gates let them inspect travelers and collect taxes on goods passing through.

(5) Neither wall sealed its empire off. Raiders sometimes broke through, and trade continued across both frontiers. Instead, the walls marked where the emperor's direct control ended—a visible line between "inside" and "outside" the empire.

(6) Both empires eventually broke apart. The Han dynasty ended in 220 CE, and the western half of the Roman Empire collapsed in 476 CE.

(1) About 2,000 years ago, two great empires ruled at opposite ends of Asia and Europe. The Roman Empire surrounded the Mediterranean Sea. In East Asia, the Han dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE) ruled China. Each empire governed tens of millions of people spread across huge distances.

(2) Ruling so much land was a constant challenge. Both empires built networks of roads so that armies, government officials, messengers, and merchants could move quickly from the capital to distant provinces. Roman roads eventually stretched for tens of thousands of miles. Han China also built roads and canals. Trade routes later called the Silk Road carried Chinese silk west across Central Asia. Rome and Han China never conquered each other or exchanged regular official visits, but through many middlemen, Chinese silk reached the markets of Rome.

(3) Each empire also tried to tie its people together with shared systems. The Romans spread the Latin language, Roman law, and Roman coins. Han emperors used a single written language for government records and trained officials in Confucian teachings at an imperial academy.

(4) Both empires faced threats from peoples living beyond their frontiers. Han emperors repaired and extended long walls begun by earlier rulers to guard against the Xiongnu, nomadic horse riders from the northern grasslands. In Britain, the Roman emperor Hadrian ordered a stone wall built across the island beginning around 122 CE; it ran about 73 miles. Soldiers stationed along these walls watched for raiders, and gates let them inspect travelers and collect taxes on goods passing through.

(5) Neither wall sealed its empire off. Raiders sometimes broke through, and trade continued across both frontiers. Instead, the walls marked where the emperor's direct control ended—a visible line between "inside" and "outside" the empire.

(6) Both empires eventually broke apart. The Han dynasty ended in 220 CE, and the western half of the Roman Empire collapsed in 476 CE.

(1) About 2,000 years ago, two great empires ruled at opposite ends of Asia and Europe. The Roman Empire surrounded the Mediterranean Sea. In East Asia, the Han dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE) ruled China. Each empire governed tens of millions of people spread across huge distances.

(2) Ruling so much land was a constant challenge. Both empires built networks of roads so that armies, government officials, messengers, and merchants could move quickly from the capital to distant provinces. Roman roads eventually stretched for tens of thousands of miles. Han China also built roads and canals. Trade routes later called the Silk Road carried Chinese silk west across Central Asia. Rome and Han China never conquered each other or exchanged regular official visits, but through many middlemen, Chinese silk reached the markets of Rome.

(3) Each empire also tried to tie its people together with shared systems. The Romans spread the Latin language, Roman law, and Roman coins. Han emperors used a single written language for government records and trained officials in Confucian teachings at an imperial academy.

(4) Both empires faced threats from peoples living beyond their frontiers. Han emperors repaired and extended long walls begun by earlier rulers to guard against the Xiongnu, nomadic horse riders from the northern grasslands. In Britain, the Roman emperor Hadrian ordered a stone wall built across the island beginning around 122 CE; it ran about 73 miles. Soldiers stationed along these walls watched for raiders, and gates let them inspect travelers and collect taxes on goods passing through.

(5) Neither wall sealed its empire off. Raiders sometimes broke through, and trade continued across both frontiers. Instead, the walls marked where the emperor's direct control ended—a visible line between "inside" and "outside" the empire.

(6) Both empires eventually broke apart. The Han dynasty ended in 220 CE, and the western half of the Roman Empire collapsed in 476 CE.

Source 1: U.S. Constitution, Article III, Section 1, 1787

(1) "The judicial Power of the United States, shall be vested in one supreme Court, and in such inferior Courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish. The Judges, both of the supreme and inferior Courts, shall hold their Offices during good Behaviour, and shall, at stated Times, receive for their Services, a Compensation, which shall not be diminished during their Continuance in Office."

Source 2: Alexander Hamilton, The Federalist No. 78, 1788

(2) "Whoever attentively considers the different departments of power must perceive, that, in a government in which they are separated from each other, the judiciary, from the nature of its functions, will always be the least dangerous to the political rights of the Constitution; because it will be least in a capacity to annoy or injure them. The Executive not only dispenses the honors, but holds the sword of the community. The legislature not only commands the purse, but prescribes the rules by which the duties and rights of every citizen are to be regulated. The judiciary, on the contrary, has no influence over either the sword or the purse; no direction either of the strength or of the wealth of the society; and can take no active resolution whatever. It may truly be said to have neither FORCE nor WILL, but merely judgment; and must ultimately depend upon the aid of the executive arm even for the efficacy of its judgments."

(3) "… nothing can contribute so much to its firmness and independence as permanency in office …"

Source 1: U.S. Constitution, Article III, Section 1, 1787

(1) "The judicial Power of the United States, shall be vested in one supreme Court, and in such inferior Courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish. The Judges, both of the supreme and inferior Courts, shall hold their Offices during good Behaviour, and shall, at stated Times, receive for their Services, a Compensation, which shall not be diminished during their Continuance in Office."

Source 2: Alexander Hamilton, The Federalist No. 78, 1788

(2) "Whoever attentively considers the different departments of power must perceive, that, in a government in which they are separated from each other, the judiciary, from the nature of its functions, will always be the least dangerous to the political rights of the Constitution; because it will be least in a capacity to annoy or injure them. The Executive not only dispenses the honors, but holds the sword of the community. The legislature not only commands the purse, but prescribes the rules by which the duties and rights of every citizen are to be regulated. The judiciary, on the contrary, has no influence over either the sword or the purse; no direction either of the strength or of the wealth of the society; and can take no active resolution whatever. It may truly be said to have neither FORCE nor WILL, but merely judgment; and must ultimately depend upon the aid of the executive arm even for the efficacy of its judgments."

(3) "… nothing can contribute so much to its firmness and independence as permanency in office …"

(1) The United States has two court systems: a federal system and a separate system in each state. Most cases begin in a trial court, where witnesses testify and a judge or jury decides the facts. A party that loses can usually appeal to a higher court, which reviews whether the law was applied correctly.

(2) The U.S. Supreme Court sits at the top of both systems. It can review decisions of the federal courts of appeals. It can also review a decision of a state's highest court, but only when the case involves the U.S. Constitution, a federal law, or a treaty (a "federal question").

(3) The Supreme Court chooses most of the cases it hears. A party asks the Court to take its case by filing a petition for a writ of certiorari. The Court receives thousands of these petitions each year but usually agrees to hear fewer than 100 cases. By long tradition, the Court accepts a case if at least four of the nine justices vote to hear it. This custom is called the "rule of four." When the Court refuses to hear a case, the decision of the lower court stands.

(1) Before 1913, the United States had no central bank. Banking "panics" struck again and again. In a panic, worried depositors rushed to withdraw their money all at once, and even healthy banks could run out of cash. During the Panic of 1907, banks failed and loans dried up until a group of private bankers led by J. P. Morgan organized a rescue.

(2) Congress responded with the Federal Reserve Act of 1913. The law's title described its goals: "An Act To provide for the establishment of Federal reserve banks, to furnish an elastic currency, to afford means of rediscounting commercial paper, to establish a more effective supervision of banking in the United States, and for other purposes." An elastic currency is a money supply that can stretch when the economy needs more money—during a panic, for example—and shrink when it needs less.

(3) The Federal Reserve System (the "Fed") has a Board of Governors in Washington, D.C., and 12 regional Reserve Banks. The seven governors are appointed by the President and confirmed by the Senate for 14-year terms. Decisions about interest rates are made by the Federal Open Market Committee (FOMC), which meets eight times a year. Its 12 voting members are the seven governors, the president of the Federal Reserve Bank of New York, and four of the other eleven Reserve Bank presidents, who take turns.

(4) Since 1977, federal law has directed the Fed to pursue maximum employment and stable prices. The FOMC's main tool is its target for the federal funds rate, the interest rate banks charge each other for overnight loans. When the FOMC raises its target, interest rates on mortgages, car loans, and business loans tend to rise. Borrowing becomes more expensive, so households and businesses spend less, and inflation slows—though unemployment may rise. When the FOMC lowers its target, the opposite tends to happen.

(5) Long, overlapping terms are meant to make the Fed independent, so that its decisions are not driven by the next election. Supporters say this independence helps keep inflation under control. Critics argue that officials who are not elected should not hold so much power over the economy.

(1) Before 1913, the United States had no central bank. Banking "panics" struck again and again. In a panic, worried depositors rushed to withdraw their money all at once, and even healthy banks could run out of cash. During the Panic of 1907, banks failed and loans dried up until a group of private bankers led by J. P. Morgan organized a rescue.

(2) Congress responded with the Federal Reserve Act of 1913. The law's title described its goals: "An Act To provide for the establishment of Federal reserve banks, to furnish an elastic currency, to afford means of rediscounting commercial paper, to establish a more effective supervision of banking in the United States, and for other purposes." An elastic currency is a money supply that can stretch when the economy needs more money—during a panic, for example—and shrink when it needs less.

(3) The Federal Reserve System (the "Fed") has a Board of Governors in Washington, D.C., and 12 regional Reserve Banks. The seven governors are appointed by the President and confirmed by the Senate for 14-year terms. Decisions about interest rates are made by the Federal Open Market Committee (FOMC), which meets eight times a year. Its 12 voting members are the seven governors, the president of the Federal Reserve Bank of New York, and four of the other eleven Reserve Bank presidents, who take turns.

(4) Since 1977, federal law has directed the Fed to pursue maximum employment and stable prices. The FOMC's main tool is its target for the federal funds rate, the interest rate banks charge each other for overnight loans. When the FOMC raises its target, interest rates on mortgages, car loans, and business loans tend to rise. Borrowing becomes more expensive, so households and businesses spend less, and inflation slows—though unemployment may rise. When the FOMC lowers its target, the opposite tends to happen.

(5) Long, overlapping terms are meant to make the Fed independent, so that its decisions are not driven by the next election. Supporters say this independence helps keep inflation under control. Critics argue that officials who are not elected should not hold so much power over the economy.

(1) When the Bill of Rights was added to the Constitution in 1791, it limited only the national government. In Barron v. Baltimore (1833), the Supreme Court confirmed that the Bill of Rights did not apply to state governments. A state could, in theory, limit speech or search homes in ways Congress could not.

(2) The Fourteenth Amendment, ratified in 1868, changed this. It says that no state shall "deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law." Over many decades, the Supreme Court ruled that the "liberty" protected by this Due Process Clause includes most of the rights listed in the Bill of Rights. Because the Court applied these rights to the states one at a time, the process is called selective incorporation.

(3) Some key steps:

• Gitlow v. New York (1925): The Court accepted that freedom of speech and of the press are protected against state governments, not just the national government.
• Mapp v. Ohio (1961): Evidence gathered in an illegal search may not be used in a state criminal trial.
• Gideon v. Wainwright (1963): A state must provide a lawyer to a person charged with a serious crime who cannot afford one.

(4) Incorporation is not complete. The Court has never required states to follow the Fifth Amendment's rule that serious federal charges begin with a grand jury indictment, or the Seventh Amendment's right to a jury in civil lawsuits (disputes over money or property). States may use their own procedures for these.

(1) By 1979, prices in the United States had been rising rapidly for most of the decade. In August 1979, Paul Volcker became chair of the Federal Reserve. Under his leadership, the Fed sharply limited the growth of the money supply, and interest rates climbed to the highest levels in modern U.S. history.

(2) The graph shows three yearly averages: the inflation rate (the rise in consumer prices), the unemployment rate, and the federal funds rate (the interest rate banks charge each other for overnight loans, which the Fed influences).

(1) Every country must decide how power is shared between its central government and its regional or local governments.

(2) In a unitary system, the central government holds supreme power. It can create regional and local governments, decide what powers they have, change their borders, or abolish them. France and Japan are unitary states.

(3) In a federal system, a written constitution divides power between the national government and state or provincial governments. Neither level can abolish the other, and each governs citizens directly. The United States, Canada, Mexico, and India have federal systems.

(4) In a confederation, independent states join together but keep most of the power. The central government is weak and depends on the member states for money and soldiers. The United States under the Articles of Confederation (1781–1789) was a confederation.

(1) Every country must decide how power is shared between its central government and its regional or local governments.

(2) In a unitary system, the central government holds supreme power. It can create regional and local governments, decide what powers they have, change their borders, or abolish them. France and Japan are unitary states.

(3) In a federal system, a written constitution divides power between the national government and state or provincial governments. Neither level can abolish the other, and each governs citizens directly. The United States, Canada, Mexico, and India have federal systems.

(4) In a confederation, independent states join together but keep most of the power. The central government is weak and depends on the member states for money and soldiers. The United States under the Articles of Confederation (1781–1789) was a confederation.

(1) On July 26, 1948, President Harry S. Truman signed Executive Order 9981. It stated: "It is hereby declared to be the policy of the President that there shall be equality of treatment and opportunity for all persons in the armed services without regard to race, color, religion or national origin." At the time, Black and white soldiers usually served in separate units.

(2) The table lists some of the actions taken by the federal government during the civil rights era.

(1) On July 26, 1948, President Harry S. Truman signed Executive Order 9981. It stated: "It is hereby declared to be the policy of the President that there shall be equality of treatment and opportunity for all persons in the armed services without regard to race, color, religion or national origin." At the time, Black and white soldiers usually served in separate units.

(2) The table lists some of the actions taken by the federal government during the civil rights era.

(1) Article I, Section 8 of the Constitution gives Congress the power "To regulate Commerce with foreign Nations, and among the several States, and with the Indian Tribes."

(2) In 1875, Congress passed a law banning racial discrimination in inns, theaters, and railroads. In the Civil Rights Cases (1883), the Supreme Court struck down that law. The Court ruled that the Fourteenth Amendment limits what state governments do; it does not give Congress power to regulate discrimination by private businesses.

(3) When Congress wrote the Civil Rights Act of 1964, it relied heavily on its power over interstate commerce. Supporters pointed out that Black travelers crossing state lines were often refused rooms and meals. This discouraged travel and reduced business across the country.

(4) The Heart of Atlanta Motel stood near two interstate highways, advertised in other states, and drew about three-quarters of its guests from outside Georgia. It refused to rent rooms to Black customers and sued to block the new law. In Heart of Atlanta Motel v. United States (1964), the Supreme Court unanimously upheld the law. The justices ruled that racial discrimination by businesses serving interstate travelers placed a real burden on interstate commerce, which Congress may regulate.

(1) Each year, the federal government sends hundreds of billions of dollars to state and local governments. These payments, called grants-in-aid, help pay for highways, health care, schools, and much more.

(2) Grants come in different forms. A categorical grant may be spent only for a specific, narrowly defined purpose, and it usually comes with detailed rules. A block grant provides money for a broad area, such as community development, and lets each state decide which programs to fund.

(3) Congress may also attach conditions to grants. The National Minimum Drinking Age Act of 1984 did not order states to raise their drinking age. Instead, it withheld part of a state's federal highway money if the state allowed people under 21 to buy alcohol. In South Dakota v. Dole (1987), the Supreme Court upheld this approach. By 1988, every state had set its drinking age at 21.

(4) Sometimes Congress simply requires states to act. A requirement placed on states by federal law is called a mandate. When Congress requires an action but provides no money to pay for it, the requirement is called an unfunded mandate.

(5) Supporters say grants and conditions create fair national standards on issues that cross state lines. Critics say they pressure states and weaken their ability to make their own choices.

(1) Background: In 1816, Congress created the Second Bank of the United States. The Constitution does not mention a power to create a bank. Maryland placed a tax on banks that were not chartered by the state, aimed at the national bank's branch in Baltimore. James McCulloch, an officer of that branch, refused to pay, and the case reached the Supreme Court.

(2) The Necessary and Proper Clause, Article I, Section 8: Congress shall have power "To make all Laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into Execution the foregoing Powers, and all other Powers vested by this Constitution in the Government of the United States, or in any Department or Officer thereof."

(3) Chief Justice John Marshall, for the Court: "Let the end be legitimate, let it be within the scope of the constitution, and all means which are appropriate, which are plainly adapted to that end, which are not prohibited, but consist with the letter and spirit of the constitution, are constitutional."

(4) Marshall also wrote that "the power to tax involves the power to destroy." The Court ruled that Maryland could not tax the national bank.

(1) The map shows three fictional countries on the Varn Plateau. Two of their borders follow physical features. The third was drawn in 1891, when two European colonial powers signed a treaty in Europe dividing the region between them. The diplomats had never visited the plateau. They used a ruler and a line of latitude, and no one from the region was consulted.

(2) The Tamu people share one language and raise cattle. Each year, Tamu families move their herds between dry-season and rainy-season pastures. When Alvoria and Coraska became independent in the 1960s, both countries kept the border drawn in 1891.